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PubMed2005

Mental fatigue, motivation and action monitoring.

In this study we examined whether the effects of mental fatigue on behaviour are due to reduced action monitoring as indexed by the error related negativity (Ne/ERN), N2 and contingent negative variation (CNV) event-related potential (ERP) components. Therefore, we had subjects perform a task, which required a high degree of action monitoring, continuously for 2h. In addition we tried to relate the observed behavioural and electrophysiological changes to motivational processes and individual differences. Changes in task performance due to fatigue were accompanied by a decrease in Ne/ERN and N2 amplitude, reflecting impaired action monitoring, as well as a decrease in CNV amplitude which reflects reduced response preparation with increasing fatigue. Increasing the motivational level of our subjects resulted in changes in behaviour and brain activity that were different for individual subjects. Subjects that increased their performance accuracy displayed an increase in Ne/ERN amplitude, while subjects that increased their response speed displayed an increase in CNV amplitude. We will discuss the effects prolonged task performance on the behavioural and physiological indices of action monitoring, as well as the relationship between fatigue, motivation and individual differences.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Smoking motives in the prediction of affective vulnerability among young adult daily smokers.

The primary aim of this study was to examine whether smoking to reduce negative affect was uniquely related to a range of affective vulnerability factors (e.g., anxiety sensitivity, anxious arousal, and negative affectivity) among daily smokers. Participants were 276 young adult daily smokers (124 females; M(age)=25.12, SD=10.37). Partially consistent with prediction, the motivation to smoke to reduce negative affect was significantly related to anxiety sensitivity and negative affectivity, but not anxious arousal; the observed significant effects were above and beyond other theoretically relevant factors (e.g., smoking rate, years smoked, age, gender). In contrast to prediction, habitual smoking motives demonstrated significant incremental associations with anxiety sensitivity and anxious arousal symptoms. These results suggest that there are important associations between certain smoking motives and negative affective states and that such relations are not attributable to other smoking factors (e.g., smoking rate).

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Who is caring for our most vulnerable children? The motivation to foster in child welfare.

OBJECTIVE: Responding to the need for more foster families to provide care for increasing numbers of children coming into care, this study was designed to understand the motivations and needs of foster parents in order to improve recruitment and retention. To meet this goal, the study identified characteristics of current foster families, performed a factor analysis on the Foster Parent Satisfaction Survey (FPSS) (Denby, R. W., Rindfleisch, N., & Bean, G. 1999). Predictors of foster parent's satisfaction and intent to continue to foster were identified, and the results were used to differentiate between foster parents who did and did not consider quitting fostering. METHOD: A sample of 652 foster parents completed a survey of 139 items including the Foster Parent Satisfaction Survey [Denby, R. W., Rindfleisch, N., & Bean, G. (1999). Predictors of foster parent's satisfaction and intent to continue to foster. Child Abuse & Neglect, 23, 287-303]. RESULTS: Foster parents were motivated by wanting to be loving parents to children and saving children from harm. The factor analysis of the FPSS resulted in five factors that were consistent with typical scoring methods of the instrument. A discriminant function analysis using these factors and whether parents had considered quitting fostering revealed that one factor, Challenging Aspects of Fostering, correctly classified 75.5% of parents. CONCLUSIONS: Foster parents' satisfaction is related to their perceptions about teamwork, communication, and confidence in relation to both the child welfare agency and its professionals. Further, the most frequently endorsed reasons for fostering reflected foster parents' altruistic and internal motivations to foster. Negative relationships with professional staff from the child welfare agency were linked to considering quitting fostering.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Treatment motivation: An attempt for clarification of an ambiguous concept.

Although the concept of treatment motivation is generally regarded as highly relevant, it has since long been surrounded by conceptual confusion, resulting in miscommunication, ambiguous measures, and contradictory conclusions of research. This article provides an analysis of three major sources of confusion in the conceptualization of treatment motivation: (a) negligence of the concepts' intrinsic relationship with behavior, (b) entanglement of the concept with its determining factors and behavioral consequences, and (c) conceptualization in a stage model. Following the conceptual analysis, causes of the problems and implications for clinical praxis and research are considered. Finally, a more adequate conceptualization of treatment motivation is proposed and suggestions for future research are made.

Counseling↗
PubMed2005

Treatment motivation in drug users: a theory-based analysis.

Motivation for drug use treatment is widely regarded as crucial to a client's engagement in treatment and success in quitting drug use. Motivation is typically measured with items reflecting high treatment readiness (e.g., perceived need for treatment and commitment to participate) and low treatment resistance (e.g., skepticism regarding benefits of treatment). Building upon reactance theory and the psychotherapeutic construct of resistance, we conceptualized these two aspects of treatment motivation - readiness and resistance - as distinct constructs and examined their predictive power in a sample of 1295 drug-using offenders referred to treatment while on probation. The sample was 60.7% African Americans, 33.5% non-Hispanic Whites, and 21.2% women; their ages ranged from 16 to 63 years old. Interviews occurred at treatment entry and 6 months later. Readiness (but not resistance) predicted treatment retention during the 6-month period. Resistance (but not readiness) predicted drug use, especially among offenders for whom the treatment referral was coercive. These findings suggest that readiness and resistance should both be assessed among clients entering treatment, especially when the referral is coercive. Intake and counseling protocols should address readiness and resistance separately.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Effects of motivational interviewing training on mental health therapist behavior.

This study examined the effectiveness of training community mental health therapists in motivational interviewing (MI) adapted to treat clients with co-occurring disorders. Ten therapists with high caseloads of culturally diverse clients in two different community mental health settings fulfilled all study requirements. MI training consisted of a two-day didactic and experiential workshop followed by eight biweekly small group supervision (coaching) sessions. Using an interrupted time series design, 156 randomly selected therapy sessions involving 28 clients were coded for assessment of therapist fidelity to MI at multiple points in time, both pre- and post-training. Employing hierarchical linear modeling analysis, significant improvement in MI skill was observed after training on five of six key therapist ratings, and on the sole client rating (client change talk) that was examined. Importantly, the present study demonstrates training-related proficiency in motivational interviewing using: (a) a representative sample of mental health therapists from the community; (b) a protocol emphasizing adherence to a mental health treatment regimen as well as management of substance use behavior for clients with co-occurring disorders; (c) repeated random observations of therapy sessions; (d) measurement of training-related changes in clinician skills and self motivational statements by clients. Findings of this effectiveness study compared favorably with efficacy literature on MI training.

Community Mental Health Services↗
PubMed2006

Therapist influence on client language during motivational interviewing sessions.

Client language in favor of change is hypothesized to be a causal mechanism for motivational interviewing (MI), and specific therapist behaviors are prescribed to elicit such speech. This project examined 38 motivational enhancement therapy sessions from Project MATCH (Matching Alcoholism Treatments to Client Heterogeneity), using a sequential behavioral coding system to investigate the relationship between therapist behaviors and client speech. Conditional probabilities were calculated between MI-consistent (MICO) therapist behaviors, MI-inconsistent (MIIN) therapist behaviors, and immediately subsequent client speech. MICO behaviors were more likely to be followed by self-motivational statements, whereas MIIN behaviors were more likely to be followed by client resistance. These results lend support to the importance of therapist behaviors in shaping client speech during MI sessions.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Using motivational interviewing with smokers: do therapist behaviors relate to engagement and therapeutic alliance?

This study examined whether therapist behaviors consistent with motivational interviewing (MI) were associated with within-session working alliance and client engagement. Forty-six audiotaped counseling sessions were drawn from a group-randomized comparison-controlled smoking cessation trial for public housing residents. Separate raters coded therapist behaviors and client behaviors. Therapist behaviors were coded using the Motivational Interviewing Skill Code. Results indicated that an MI-consistent style (average of the global ratings of collaboration, egalitarianism, and empathy) was positively associated with alliance and engagement, whereas confrontation was negatively related to alliance. Small to moderate effect sizes were found for affirming, asking open-ended questions, confronting, reflecting, and summarizing. Significant covariates include treatment condition, session sequence, and session date. Findings empirically support Miller and Rollnick's [Miller, W. R., & Rollnick, S. (2002). Motivational interviewing: Preparing people for change (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press] emphasis on the importance of MI spirit for enhancing alliance and engagement and their findings that any tears/ruptures in the alliance through the use of confrontation could significantly relate to poor outcomes.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Behavioral analysis of male rat sexual motivation and performance following acute ethanol treatment.

To characterize the effects of acute ethanol treatment on sexual motivation and performance, 30 male Long-Evans rats were assigned to one of three treatment conditions: saline (n=9), 0.25 g/kg ethanol (n=10), or 1.0 g/kg ethanol (n=11). Males were injected intraperitoneally 30 min before behavioral testing. Male rats were placed in a multilevel testing chamber 5 min prior to the introduction of a receptive female rat and level changes were recorded as an index of sexual motivation. After the female rat was placed in the chamber, standard measures of sexual performance were recorded over three weekly tests. Results indicated that the highest dose of ethanol (1.0 g/kg) increased male rat level-changing behavior compared to the saline group. Although ethanol treatment failed to affect most measures of sexual performance, males administered 1.0 g/kg ethanol had fewer anogenital investigations and had longer postejaculatory intervals (PEIs) compared to control animals. The data from this experiment suggest that ethanol increases rodent sexual motivation but impairs specific parameters of sexual performance.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Predictive testing for hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer: motivation, illness representations and short-term psychological impact.

This paper describes the motivation, recall of cancer risks, and illness representations of 40 individuals who had a predictive test for hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC) as well as the short-term impact of predictive testing by means of a semi-structured interview and self-report questionnaires. The main motives for predictive testing were early detection of cancer, knowledge of the children's risk and reduction of uncertainty. Overall, recall of cancer risks was good. Measurements of illness representations revealed low perceptions of "threat" of cancer and high confidence in the controllability of the disease. Distress was within normal ranges. Distress decreased significantly from pre- to post-test in non-carriers and did not in carriers. It also decreased in individuals for whom "reducing uncertainty" was a very important motive for the test, not in the others. Although part of the carriers did not have colonoscopies, all carriers intended to have regular colonoscopies in the future.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2004

Sexual incentive motivation, olfactory preference, and activation of the vomeronasal projection pathway by sexually relevant cues in non-copulating and naive male rats.

There are some apparently healthy male rats that fail to mate after repeated testing with receptive females. We have previously shown that these "non-copulator (NC)" males show no partner preference for a receptive female when given the opportunity to physically interact with a sexually receptive female or a sexually active male. We also demonstrated that although NC males prefer odors from estrous females to odors from anestrous females, this preference is significantly reduced in comparison to the preference displayed by copulating (C) males. The aim of the present study was to evaluate in NC males sexual incentive motivation, that is, the approach behavior of male rats to either a sexually receptive female or a sexually active male in a test where the subjects can smell, hear, and see the stimulus animal but prevents their physical interaction. In addition, we determined whether NC rats have alterations in their ability to detect odors from conspecifics or odors related to food. In the detection of odors from conspecifics, we determined if these NC males are sexually attracted toward odors from receptive females or sexually active males. For food-related odors, we quantified the time it took the subjects to locate a hidden a piece of apple. Finally, using the induction of Fos-immunoreactivity (Fos-IR) as an index of neuronal activation, we compared the response of the vomeronasal projection pathway (VN pathway) of C and NC male rats exposed to estrous bedding. Males without sexual experience (WSE) were included in all experiments to determine the importance of previous heterosexual experience in the different behavioral tests and in the activity of the VN pathway. In the sexual incentive motivation test, we found that C and WSE male rats have a clear preference for estrous females over sexually active males, whereas NC male rats showed no preference. In odor tests, our results showed that C males had a clear preference for odors from estrous females as opposed to odors from sexually active males. Although NC and WSE male rats showed a preference for estrous female odors, this preference was significantly reduced compared to that shown by C males. No differences were found between WSE, C, and NC males in the detection of stimuli associated with food-related odors. A significant increase in Fos-IR was observed in the mitral cell layer of the accessory olfactory bulb in all groups when exposed to estrous bedding. However, only the C male rats exposed to estrous female bedding showed an increase Fos-IR in all structures of the VN pathway. An increase in Fos-IR was observed in the medial preoptic area (MPOA) of WSE males exposed to estrous bedding. No increases in Fos-IR were detected along the VN pathway in NC male rats. We proposed that NC male rats do not display sexual behavior due to a reduced sexual motivation that could be caused by alterations in the neuronal activity of the VN pathway during the processing of estrous odors.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Salivary cortisol changes in humans after winning or losing a dominance contest depend on implicit power motivation.

In two studies, one with an all-male German sample and the other with a mixed-sex U.S. sample, subjects competed in pairs on reaction time-based cognitive tasks. Participants were not aware that contest outcome was experimentally varied. In both studies, implicit power motivation, defined as the non-conscious need to dominate or have impact on others, predicted changes in salivary cortisol from before to after the contest. Increased cortisol post-contest was associated with high levels of power motivation among losers but with low levels of power motivation among winners, suggesting that a dominance success is stressful for low-power individuals, whereas a social defeat is stressful for high-power individuals. These results emerged only in participants tested in the afternoon, possibly because of greater variability in cortisol in the morning due to the rapid decline after the morning peak. These studies add to the evidence that individual differences greatly influence whether a social stressor like losing a contest activates the HPA axis in humans.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed1998

Counseling and motivational videotapes increase duration of breast-feeding in African-American WIC participants who initiate breast-feeding.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the relative effects introducing motivational videotapes and/or peer counseling in Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) clinics serving African-American women have on breast-feeding duration. DESIGN: Experimental intervention study. Pregnant women were enrolled at or before 24 weeks gestation and were followed up until postpartum week 16. Women were interviewed at enrollment, 7 to 10 days, 8 weeks, and 16 weeks postpartum. SUNJECTS/SETTING: One hundred fifteen African-American WIC participants who initiated breast-feeding and who had been enrolled in 1 of 4 clinics. INTERVENTION: Two-by-two factorial design, in which 4 clinics were randomly assigned to receive either no intervention, a motivational video package intervention, a peer-counseling intervention, or both interventions. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Breast-feeding duration in weeks and relative risk ratios for breast-feeding cessation before 16 weeks postpartum. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS PERFORMED: Contingency table analysis, including chi2 tests and log-rank tests; multivariate analysis using Cox proportional hazards regression analysis. RESULTS: A higher proportion of women were breast-feeding at 8 and 16 weeks postpartum in the intervention clinics than in the control clinic. The proportion of women reporting breast-feeding declined at 8 and 16 weeks postpartum, but the rate of decline was slower in the 3 intervention clinics than in the control clinic. Being younger than 19 years of age or older than 25 years of age, having a male infant, and returning to work or school all negatively affected breastfeeding duration, whereas previous breast-feeding experience positively influenced breast-feeding duration. APPLICATIONS/CONCLUSIONS: WIC-based peer counselor support and motivational videos can positively affect the duration of breast-feeding among African-American women. WIC nutritionists and other health professionals in contact with this population should expand their efforts toward promoting increased duration of breast-feeding.

Black or African American↗
PubMed2002

Smoking, reward responsiveness, and response inhibition: tests of an incentive motivational model.

BACKGROUND: Incentive-motivation models of addiction suggest impairment of functional activity in mesocorticolimbic reward pathways during abstinence. This study tested implications for subjective and behavioral responses to nondrug incentives, cue-elicited craving, and prefrontal cognitive functions, particularly response inhibition. METHODS: We tested 26 smokers after smoking and after overnight abstinence in counterbalanced order; 26 nonsmokers were also tested twice. Measures included a simple card-sorting test performed with and without financial incentive (the CARROT), the Snaith Hamilton Pleasure Scale as an index of subjective reward responsiveness, ratings of subjective craving and withdrawal before and after exposure to a cigarette, an index of oculomotor response inhibition (saccadic vs. antisaccadic eye movements), verbal fluency, and reversed digit span. RESULTS: Compared with the smoking condition, and independently of withdrawal severity, abstinence was associated with reduced cue reactivity, pleasure expectancies, responsiveness to financial incentive, and response inhibition (antisaccadic eye movements). Verbal fluency and reversed digit span were unaffected, contrary to findings elsewhere with heavier smokers. Nonsmokers' scores either fell between those of abstainers and recent smokers or approximated those of recent smokers. CONCLUSIONS: The data were in general consistent with behavioral predictions derived from the incentive-motivational model of addiction and suggest that abstinence may be associated with impairments of motivation and response inhibition, which are independent of other subjectively experienced withdrawal symptoms.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

Sexual motivation: involvement of endogenous opioids in the ventral tegmental area.

The sexual motivation and performance of male rats were observed in a bilevel testing chamber after bilateral infusion of 40 pmol beta-endorphin, 2.75 nmol naloxone or saline into the ventral tegmental area for four succeeding, weekly tests. In the 5 min prior to introduction of the female rat, the male rat explores the bilevel testing chamber. It was previously shown that the increase over tests of these anticipatory level changes is sexually motivated and a response to olfactory stimuli. Naloxone infusion into the VTA prevented the increase of anticipatory level changes. beta-Endorphin failed to affect the anticipatory level-changing behavior. The sexual performance was unaffected by naloxone or beta-endorphin treatment, but the number of ejaculating rats decreased with repeated testing after naloxone treatment. It is concluded that endogenous opioid systems in the ventral tegmental area contribute to the stimulation of sexual motivation and/or reward, presumably by stimulating the mesolimbic dopamine system in response to sex-related olfactory stimuli.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

The neurosteroids, progesterone and 3alpha,5alpha-THP, enhance sexual motivation, receptivity, and proceptivity in female rats.

The effects of progesterone (P) and the neurosteroid and P metabolite, 3alpha-hydroxy-5alpha-pregnan-20-one (3alpha,5alpha-THP) on ovariectomized (ovx), estradiol-3-benzoate (EB)-primed rats on sexual motivation, receptivity, and proceptivity were examined. Changes in central P and 3alpha,5alpha-THP were measured following administration of EB, EB+P, EB+3alpha,5alpha-THP, or EB+inhibitor of 5alpha-reductase or P metabolism (epostane and finasteride)+P (Expt. 1). Partner preference was measured as the duration of time females in these different hormonal treatments spent in proximity to a male vs. female conspecific (Expt. 2). Receptivity (lordosis quotients and ratings) and proceptivity (darting, hopping, ear wiggling, and pacing), for different hormone treatments were assessed (Expt. 3 and Expt. 4, respectively). Conditioned place preference following hormone treatments and paced mating enabled assessment of sexual motivation (Expt. 5). Central P and 3alpha,5alpha-THP were measured in various combinations of hormone/mating conditions (Expt. 6). Studies revealed that 3alpha,5alpha-THP has a significant role in these reproductive measures. Brain concentrations of 3alpha, 5alpha-THP were significantly higher in animals receiving EB+P or EB+3alpha,5alpha-THP compared to animals receiving EB alone, or EB+P in conjunction with an inhibitor of P metabolism. EB+P and EB+3alpha, 5alpha-THP significantly increased time spent in proximity to the male, receptivity and proceptivity. When administered to ovx, EB-primed rats, the progestin metabolite, 3alpha,5alpha-THP, had effects on these behaviors similar to P. Epostane, an inhibitor of P and 3alpha,5alpha-THP biosynthesis, and finasteride, an inhibitor of P metabolism to 3alpha,5alpha-THP, administered to EB+P animals reduced male partner preference, proceptive, and receptive behaviors to levels seen in EB+vehicle animals. Notably, whole brain 3alpha, 5alpha-THP levels were significantly increased and whole brain P levels were significantly reduced in paced mated rats compared to standard mated, and receptive non-mated animals. These studies suggest that P and 3alpha,5alpha-THP may have some common effects on reproductive behavior, e.g., sexual motivation, receptivity, and proceptivity.

Androstenols↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Do psychiatrists understand research-related experiences, attitudes, and motivations of schizophrenia study participants?

Psychiatrists serve in different but important capacities with research participants. Because ethical problems may arise in research when participants misunderstand motives and responsibilities of clinical-investigators (i.e., "therapeutic misconception"), it is important that relationships between research participants and psychiatric caregivers and investigators be based on genuine mutual understanding. Considerations about attunement of psychiatrists with schizophrenia research participants have never been studied empirically. As part of a larger structured interview-survey study, we assessed the predictions of psychiatrists regarding self-reported experiences, attitudes, and motivations of individual schizophrenia research volunteers who were known to the respondent psychiatrists. Fourteen patient-psychiatrist pairs were identified for inclusion. Psychiatrists predicted schizophrenia research participants' ease of participation, privacy concerns, and willingness to participate in future research but underestimated their positive overall experience. Psychiatrists also were attuned to schizophrenia participants' attitudes and motivations regarding personal benefit but did not accurately predict their responses concerning helping others and science. Also, psychiatrists underestimated the schizophrenia participants' perceived degree of influence by researchers and caregivers during recruitment. Psychiatrists recognized the burden, primary concerns, future participation willingness, and personal benefit orientation of schizophrenia participants, but they did not appear to fully understand the overall positive quality of research experience, altruistic orientation, and relationship orientation of their schizophrenia patients who volunteer for research participation.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Sexually conditioned incentives: attenuation of motivational impact during dopamine receptor antagonism.

The motivational impact of sexually conditioned incentives was examined in two experiments. In Experiment 1, male Long-Evans rats copulated to ejaculation in the presence of one of two scents (orange or almond extract) on five separate occasions. On alternating days, subjects spent an equal amount of time in social isolation with the opposing scent. Following the 10-day conditioning regimen, subjects ran more rapidly down an operant runway toward a goalbox containing the sex-paired scent (CS+) compared to trials on which the isolation-paired scent (CS-) or no scent was provided. In Experiment 2, comparably conditioned male rats were first given a baseline runway trial with an unscented goalbox. The following day, subjects were pretreated with one of four doses of haloperidol (0.0, 0.075, 0.15, or 0.30 mg/kg i.p.) 45 min prior to being tested in the runway for their motivation to approach either the CS+ or CS- scents. Control subjects given vehicle injections performed comparably to subjects from Experiment 1, taking significantly less time to approach the CS+ than an unscented goalbox. This decrease in run latency was not observed in subjects within the 0.075 and 0.15 mg/kg haloperidol groups. Subjects in the 0.30 mg/kg haloperidol groups took significantly more time to approach both the CS+ and CS- compared to their baseline run times. These data reveal that an olfactory cue associated with sexual reward becomes a conditioned incentive capable of eliciting approach behavior, and that dopamine receptor antagonism (at moderate but not high doses) selectively attenuates this cue-induced motivation.

Animals↗