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PubMed2001

Variations in ocular biometry in an adult Chinese population in Singapore: the Tanjong Pagar Survey.

PURPOSE: To describe the variation in ocular biometry in adult Chinese individuals in Singapore. METHODS: This study was a population-based, cross-sectional survey of adult Chinese persons aged 40 to 81 years residing in Tanjong Pagar district, Singapore. Axial ocular dimensions, including axial length (AL), anterior chamber depth (ACD), lens thickness (LT), and vitreous chamber depth (VCD) were measured using an A-scan ultrasound device. Corneal curvature (CC) and noncycloplegic refraction were measured with an autorefractor, with refraction further refined subjectively. Lens nuclear opacity (NO) was graded clinically using the modified Lens Opacity Classification System III (LOCS III) score. RESULTS: A total of 1717 subjects were eligible for the survey, of whom 1232 (71.8%) participated. Biometric and refraction data were available for 1004 (58.5%) phakic subjects. The AL, ACD, LT, VCD, CC, and LOCS III scores were 23.23 +/- 1.17 mm, 2.90 +/- 0.44 mm, 4.75 +/- 0.47 mm, 15.58 +/- 1.11 mm, 7.65 +/- 0.27 mm, and 3.2 +/- 0.9 (mean +/- SD), respectively. On average, people aged 40 to 49 years, when compared with those 70 to 81 years, had longer ALs (mean difference, +0.58 mm), deeper ACDs (+0.52 mm), longer VCDs (+0.72 mm), but thinner lenses (-0.70 mm) and less severe NO (-1.7 LOCS III score). CCs did not vary significantly with age. After controlling for age, women had shorter ALs and VCDs, shallower ACDs, but thicker lenses and steeper CCs than men. The variation in noncycloplegic refraction with age was nonlinear. Among people aged 40 to 59 years, a higher prevalence of hyperopia was seen in older compared with younger persons (on average, a difference of +1.3 D for every 10-year difference in age, P: < 0.001), explained principally by shorter AL (and VCD) in older persons. Among those 60 to 81 years, this pattern was not obvious (a difference of -0.03 D for every 10-year difference in age, P: = 0.12), as NO became an additional determinant of refraction, with greater degrees of NO in older person's driving refraction in the "minus" direction. CONCLUSIONS: Ocular dimensions vary with age and gender in adult Chinese persons in Singapore. The variation in noncycloplegic refraction in people 40 years and older may be explained by differences in axial lengths (principally vitreous chamber depths) between older and younger persons and, from 60 years onwards, differences in lens nuclear opacification as well.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

[Choroidal folds in diabetic retinopathy].

PURPOSE: Choroidal folds are wrinkles of the inner part of the choroid, Bruch's membrane, retinal pigment epithelium and the outer retinal layers that produce alternate yellow and dark streaks. We have made a bibliographic checking of all of the causes and we have not found a clear relationship with diabetic retinopathy. Our purpose is to study a group of cases that we found with choroidal folds and diabetic retinopathy. METHODS: We have checked 1,019 angiographies of diabetic patients and we have found 16 cases with choroidal folds. Medical and ocular history have been analysed, as well as the state of the retinopathy and the morphology and pattern of the folds. RESULTS: All the cases had a similar pattern, bend shaped and horizontal, concentric, outside the macula and variable length. Changes of the appearance in the time have been demonstrated. 88% were women; 54% had a mild hyperopia (less than 2.5 diopters); 100% were diabetic type II and 85% insulin-dependent. The clinical appearance of the retinopathy was in 44% of moderate background, in 12% of severe background and in 44% of proliferative retinopathy. Arterial hypertension was the systemic disease more frequently associated (50%). CONCLUSIONS: We have found choroidal folds in patients with diabetic retinopathy of similar appearance. Changes observed in the time in angiographies reveal that, with high probability, they are acquired. The thick choroid that is developed in diabetics, together with the hypertensive retinopathy could be the cause of these folds.

Choroid↗
PubMed2001

Effects of nicotinic antagonists on ocular growth and experimental myopia.

PURPOSE: To learn whether nicotinic cholinergic receptors modulate postnatal eye growth and influence the course of form-deprivation myopia. METHODS: One-week-old White Leghorn chicks wore a unilateral goggle to induce form-deprivation myopia. Other chicks were never goggled. Nicotinic antagonist drugs were administered by intravitreal injection, usually daily or every other day to the goggled eye or to one eye of never-goggled chicks. After 1 week, the eyes were studied by refractometry, A-scan ultrasonography, and caliper measurements. RESULTS: The relatively non-subtype-specific channel-blocking nicotinic antagonists chlorisondamine and mecamylamine each inhibited the development of form-deprivation myopia but with complex multiphasic dose responses. Chlorisondamine was the most effective. Mecamylamine, at the lowest tested doses, tended to stimulate the growth response and myopic refractive shift of goggle wearing. Methyllycaconitine competitively inhibits nicotinic receptors containing the alpha7 and alpha8 subunits, which are highly expressed in chick retina. It showed a less dramatic but still significant inhibitory effect on myopia. The effects of dihydro-beta-erythroidine, a competitive antagonist relatively selective for nicotinic receptors with alpha3 or alpha4 subunits and particularly for alpha3beta2-containing receptors, were the weakest and inhibited primarily axial elongation. Chlorisondamine but not mecamylamine also affected nongoggled eyes, inhibiting growth and shifting refraction toward hyperopia, but chlorisondamine also induced degenerative changes to the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). CONCLUSIONS: Nicotinic receptors are involved in eye growth control. Nicotinic antagonists affect the development of form-deprivation myopia and perhaps the growth of nongoggled eyes. The differences in drug activity and multiphasic dose-response curves may reflect the complexity of nicotinic receptor subtypes associated with the eye and/or pharmacokinetic differences between the individual drugs. Although another tissue(s) cannot be completely excluded by these data, the site of action of these agents may be neural retina or RPE.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

[Treatment of postoperative astigmatism after perforating keratoplasty using the LASIK method].

The problem of postoperative astigmatism after perforating keratoplasty is complicated. Several possible methods of correction exist. The time and approach to correction of astigmatism after perforating keratoplasty is important. The authors present an account on a group of 10 eyes treated by the LASIK method on an apparatus Keracor 117. In four instances hyperopia with astigmatism was involved and in six eyes myopia with astigmatism, the mean age of the patients being 46.25 years. The mean values of the preoperative spherical hyperopic componenent was +1.37 D and of the myopic spherical component -2.12 D. The preoperative hyperopic astigmatism was +4.5 D and the myopic astigmatism -5.84 D. The follow up period was 9.5 months (1-25 months). The authors evaluate the postoperative natural vision, the resulting postoperative refraction, the incidence of complications and changes of endothelial cells before and after surgery. The resulting mean postoperative hyperopic astigmatism was +0.5 D and the myopic astigmatism -2.4 D. The reduction of values of hyperopic astigmatism was 88.9% and of myopic astigmatism 58.9%, the reduction of the spherical hyperopic component was 100% and of the myopic component 75%. On account of the stabilization of the postoperative refraction, low incidence of peroperative and postoperative complications and the insignificant decrease of endothelial cells the LASIK method is evaluated as effective.

Astigmatism↗
PubMed2000

Refractive errors and strabismus in premature Asian infants with and without retinopathy of prematurity.

AIM: In Caucasian populations, premature infants with retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) have been reported to have higher risks of developing refractive errors and strabimus. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the rate of these complications in Asian premature infants with and without ROP. METHODS: A retrospective case review of all premature infants referred to the Singapore National Eye Centre for ophthalmology screening. These included all neonates born earlier than 34 weeks gestational age and less than 1500 grams in birth weight. Standardized ophthalmology examinations including cycloplegic refraction and fundus examination at regular intervals were performed to determine the presence of ROP, refractive errors, squints and other ocular abnormalities until the patients were 3 years old. RESULTS: During 1991 to 1993, a total of 113 neonates were reviewed. Of these, 16 (14.2%) developed ROP. The risk of ROP was higher with lower birth weights and earlier gestational ages. At 1-year follow-up, the rate of myopia was 33.3% in babies with ROP compared to 3.7% in babies with no ROP (p < 0.001). The higher rates of myopia in babies with ROP remained with longer follow-up (33.3% and 25% in ROP group versus 3.4% and 3.8% in no ROP group, at 2 and 3 years respectively). There was no difference in rates of astigmatism or hyperopia throughout the 3 years. At 1 year follow-up, the rate of strabismus was 20% in the ROP group compared to 4.9% in the no ROP group (p = 0.07). However, this difference in rates of strabismus was not significant at 2 and 3 years of follow-up. CONCLUSION: Premature babies with ROP had higher rates of myopia and strabismus than those without ROP. Long-term follow-up of these babies is important for early detection and treatment of these ocular problems.

Asian People↗
PubMed2001

Blindness in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh.

PURPOSE: To determine the current prevalence and causes of blindness in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh to assess if blindness has decreased since the last survey of 1986-1989. METHODS: A population-based epidemiology study, using a stratified, random, cluster, systematic sampling strategy, was conducted in the state of Andhra Pradesh in India. Participants of all ages (n = 10,293), 87.3% of the 11,786 eligible, from 94 clusters in one urban and three rural areas representative of the population of Andhra Pradesh, underwent interview and a detailed dilated ocular evaluation by trained professionals. Blindness was defined as presenting distance visual acuity < 6/60 or central visual field < 20(o) in the better eye. RESULTS: Two hundred seventy-five participants were blind, a prevalence of 1.84% (95% confidence interval, 1.49%-2.19%) when adjusted for the age, sex, and urban-rural distribution of the population in 2000. The causes of this blindness were easily treatable in 60.3% (cataract, 44%; refractive error, 16.3%). Preventable corneal disease, glaucoma, complications of cataract surgery, and amblyopia caused another 19% of the blindness. Blindness was more likely with increasing age and decreasing socioeconomic status, and in female subjects and in rural areas. Among the 76 million population of Andhra Pradesh, 714,400 are estimated to have cataract-related blindness (615,600 cataract, 53,200 cataract surgery-related complications, 45,600 aphakia), and 228,000 refractive error-related blindness (159,600 myopia, 22,800 hyperopia, 45,600 refractive error-related amblyopia). If 95% of the cataract and refractive error blindness in Andhra Pradesh had been treated effectively, 3.4 and 7.4 million blind-person-years, respectively, could have been prevented. If 90% of the blindness due to preventable corneal disease and glaucoma had been prevented, another 2.7 million blind-person-years could have been prevented. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of blindness in this Indian state has increased from 1.5% in the late 1980s to 1.84% currently, as against the target of the National Program for Control of Blindness to reduce the prevalence to 0.3% by 2000. The number of people with cataract-related blindness has not reduced even with the eye care policy focus on cataract. Reduction of blindness in India will require strategies that are more effective than those that have been pursued so far.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

[New generation of excimer laser--Asclepion Meditec MEL 70 G-Scan].

The new Asclepion-Meditec MEL 70 G-Scan represents a breakthrough in surgical application of excimer laser. The laser uses the latest generation of flying spot system which utilizes a SafeScan algorithm (patent pending) to avoid corneal surface irregularities. The system utilizes a Gaussian beam profile. In cases where the cornea has regular surface, the conventional excimer laser PRK or LASIK method will provide good results. If the cornea shows an irregular surface shape, custom-tailored, topography-based ablation, which has been adapted to the corneal irregularity, should provide better results. Asclepion-Meditec have added a TSA (Tissue saving Algorithm) module to TOSCA (Topography Supported Customized Ablations) software for carrying out topography-guided corrections. This module automatically minimises the tissue removal when calculating the correction program. MEL 70 G-Scan allows to treat all forms of refractive errors, myopia and myopic astigmatism -24 D sph, -12 D cyl, hyperopia and hyperopic astigmatism +16 D sph, +8 D cyl, mixtus and irregular astigmatism.

Cornea↗
PubMed2001

Novel CACNA1F mutations in Japanese patients with incomplete congenital stationary night blindness.

PURPOSE: Although it was reported that congenital stationary night blindness (CSNB) could be divided into complete and incomplete CSNB clinically in 1986, it was not until 1998 that the two types were found to be distinct clinical diseases by molecular genetic analysis. The purpose of this article is to report mutations in the retina-specific calcium channel alpha1-subunit gene (CACNA1F) in Japanese patients with incomplete CSNB and to describe the clinical features of these patients. METHODS: Seven patients from five separate Japanese families with incomplete CSNB were examined. Genomic DNA was extracted from leukocytes of the peripheral blood, and all 48 exons of the CACNA1F were amplified by polymerase chain reaction and directly sequenced. A complete ophthalmic examination was performed, including best corrected visual acuity, slit lamp and fundus examinations, fundus photography, and electroretinography. RESULTS: A mutation in the CACNA1F was identified in all the patients. The identified mutations were a missense mutation (Gly609Asp); a nonsense mutation (Arg913stop); a splice donor site mutation of G to C at nucleotide 2571+1; a G insertion at nucleotide 709, resulting in a frame shift with a predicted stop codon at codon 247; and a 4-bp deletion at nucleotides 271 to 274, with a replacement by an abnormal 34-bp sequence. Clinically, each patient had essentially normal fundi, mildly reduced corrected visual acuity, and slight myopia or hyperopia with astigmatism. Electrophysiologically, the mixed rod-cone ERG showed a negative configuration with recordable oscillatory potentials. The rod ERG was recordable but subnormal, and the cone and 30-Hz flicker ERGs were markedly depressed. CONCLUSIONS: Five novel mutations were identified in the CACNA1F in five Japanese families with incomplete CSNB, leading to the conclusion that in most Japanese patients, incomplete CSNB is caused by a CACNA1F mutation.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

[Does refractive surgery really make eyeglasses superfluous?].

Spectacles have become a problem of life-style in some societies. In the USA, in 1999 approximately 1 million LASIK operations have been performed to correct myopia and astigmatism and in Europe the frequency of refractive surgery stead by increases. However, only 3 to 5% of these operations are medically indicated. Refractive surgery is evaluated regarding safety and efficacy. Modern laser techniques demonstrate excellent refractive results: photorefractive keratectomy (PRK) achieved refractive success rates of 90% and more with complication rates of 0.5% and less. PRK is, therefore, a valuable technique for corrections of myopia up to -6.0 D. Similar efficacy is obtained with LASIK (laser in situ keratomileusis) in corrections up to -10 D, however, the complication rate is somewhat higher. Laser correction of hyperopia is equally successful regarding the refractive success but shows an even higher complication rate and the patient satisfaction is lower. Modern refractive laser surgery may replace spectacles in the majority of the cases, however, none of the techniques is free of complications. Therefore, we understand refractive surgery still to be inferior to the correction of ametropia by means of spectacles and any such operation should be attempted only after thorough discussion.

Astigmatism↗
PubMed2001

[Refraction shift after intraocular lens implantation in children].

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the refraction shift after posterior chamber intraocular lens (PC-IOL) implantation in children. METHODS: A long term retrospective study involved 65 eyes of 65 patients aged from 5 to 12 years who underwent PC-IOL implantation between December 1988 and December 1994. The mean follow-up was 7.1 years (range 5 to 10 years). Refraction shift, keratometric readings and axial length were periodically measured. Sixty-five healthy eyes were in the control group. RESULTS: The mean preoperative axial length of the surgical group was (22.48 +/- 0.44) mm, and of the control group, (22.43 +/- 0.41) mm. There was no statistically significant difference in axial length after 10 years in both groups, (23.45 +/- 0.53) mm in surgical group and (23.41 +/- 0.50) mm in control group. All the eyes showed a myopic drift with 3.29 D in surgical group and 1.75 D in control group (F = 2.318, P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: The ocular growth of children is found to be unaffected by the PC-IOL implantation, the choice of IOL power should be retained in physiological hyperopia in pseudophakic children.

Cataract↗
PubMed2000

Comparison of computer-photoscreening with non-cycloplegic retinoscopy for amblyopiogenic risk factors in children.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the sensitivity and specificity of using a computer-photoscreener and non-cycloplegic retinoscopy in the detection of amblyopiogenic factors in nine to fifty months old infants and children. METHODS: Three hundred children, nine to fifty months old, were screened with the computer-photoscreener and non-cycloplegic retinoscopy. With a blinded standardized clinical assessment as the standard, an overall comparison of the sensitivity of and specificity results obtained with the two techniques was made. Photoscreen images on the computer monitor screen were reviewed and analyzed immediately by two independent observers for indicators of amblyopiogenic risk factors. Simultaneously, the results were compared to the findings of a full ophthalmologic examination. RESULTS: The computer-photoscreener revealed a sensitivity of 94.6% and specificity of 90.1%, and the non-cycloplegic retinocopy revealed a sensitivity of 85.7% and specificity of 81.0% for the detection of amblyopiogenic risk factors, including hyperopia (+2.75 D or more), myopia (-1.50 D or more), astigmatism (1.75 D or more), anisometropia (2.00 D or more), ocular misalignment (5 degrees or more), and media opacity (1.5 mm or more). CONCLUSIONS: The computer-photoscreener offers an opportunity to identify problems that limit vision, and could provide a feasible and sufficiently reliable screening technique in infants and preschool children to be screened successfully for amblyopiogenic risk factors.

Amblyopia↗
PubMed2000

[A study on the effect of vitreous cavity length in primary ametropia].

OBJECTIVE: To study the nature of primary ametropia and disclose the actions of ocular refractive components, especially the length of vitreous cavity, on primary ametropia. METHODS: The refractive state, corneal refractive power (CP), anterior ocular segment length (ASL), vitreous length (VL) and ocular axial length (AL) were measured for 1 336 eyes, including 523 hyperopic eyes, 199 emmetropic eyes and 614 myopic eyes. The relationships of these elements were studied. RESULTS: CP had no effect on the refractive state. There was no significant difference between CP of these three refractive groups (hyperopia vs. emmetropia and emmetropia vs. myopia) (P > 0.05). The test of normality showed that the distribution of CP was normal in each refractive state. Case control study of paired sample revealed that ASL did not change regularly with the change of refraction, while VL changed progressively with the change of refraction and there was significant difference between each pair of groups (F = 204.29, P < 0.01). The study of the relationship with matching t test between AL and VL showed that the change amount of AL and VL was nearly the same, that was, the growth of AL was about the same as the growth of VL (P > 0.05). Analysis of correlation and regression showed that these two elements were highly correlated, the coefficient of correlation being 0.879. CONCLUSION: VL determines AL and finally determines refractive state. VL is the most important element in determining primary ametropia while the anterior eye segment has no significant contribution.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

[Retrospective evaluation of PC IOL power after extracapsular cataract extraction].

PURPOSE: Retrospective evaluation of PC IOL power calculation accuracy and comparison of the refractive errors after ECCE resulted from different methods of calculation. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The PC IOL power in 100 eyes with senile cataract without significant refractive errors, was calculated using SRK II formula with two different biometers and based on primary refraction. The final IOL power was established by surgeon based on all mentioned calculations (surgeon choice). Half a year after surgery the refractive error was measured. The proper IOL power, which did not require additional correction, was calculated (ideal lens). RESULTS: 48 eyes did not require any distance correction. In 44 eyes small hyperopia (to +2.0 D) appeared and in 8 eyes myopia (to -1.5 D). The smallest error was made in cases where we implanted lenses according to surgeon choice. The average power of ideal lens was 20.32 D. We observed statistically significant difference between both ultrasound biometers. CONCLUSIONS: The most accurate results were achieved in cases where IOL power was chosen by the surgeon based on SRK II formula and primary refraction. Possible source of errors can be inadequate indications of biometers.

Aged↗
PubMed2002

Magnification characteristic of a +90-diopter double-aspheric fundus examination lens.

PURPOSE: To investigate the magnification characteristic of the +90-D double-aspheric fundus examination lens for biomicroscopic measurement of the optic disc. METHODS: A calibrated Gullstrand-type model eye adjusted for axial ametropia between -12.5 and +12.6 D was used to measure the change in magnification of the system with refractive error and variation in fundus lens position. A correction factor p (in degrees per millimeter) at different axial ametropias was also calculated. RESULTS: The total change in magnification of the system from myopia to hyperopia was -15.1% to +13.7%. When the fundus lens position was altered with respect to the model eye by +/-2 mm under myopic conditions, the change in magnification of the system was -4.8% to +8.1%. In the hyperopic condition the change was -4.8% to +6.0%. The fundus lens exhibited a linear relationship between p and the degree of ametropia of the model eye and a constant relationship between p and ametropia of -5 to +5 D. CONCLUSIONS: Axial ametropia has a significant effect on biomicroscopic measurement of the optic disc with the +90-D lens. Therefore, a correction factor (p) was calculated that can be used in calculations for determining true optic disc size. These findings may be important for improving clinical disc biometry.

Fundus Oculi↗
PubMed2002

[The role of light in pathogenesis of refractive errors].

PURPOSE: To present and account the results of newest experimental and clinical investigations on the subject of the light effect on the creation of refractive errors. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A review of literature concerning the role of the light in the refractive errors' pathogenesis has been performed. RESULTS: The influence of continuous light and night adaptation on the eyeball development as well as on the creation of refractive errors in experimental conditions are discussed. The anatomical and biochemical changes taking place in the course of experimental myopia are described. The entities of diseases predisposing to the creation of myopia are characterized. The results of the newest clinical investigations in which was shown that myopia and hyperopia might be associated with sleeping in lighted rooms up to the age of two are presented as well as accounted. CONCLUSIONS: Light and darkness play an important role in the proper eye development. Disturbance of the diurnal cycle over the time during which refraction forms may create refractive errors.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed2002

[LASEK--new laser refractive surgical technique. Personal experience].

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the clinical results of refractive error correction LASEK. MATERIAL AND METHODS: 115 eyes were analyzed after LASEK. The eyes were divided into 4 groups (myopia, myopic astigmatism, hyperopia, hyperopic astigmatism). The follow-up has taken 3 months. The effectiveness of this method was evaluated on the basis of the best visual acuity without correction after LASEK procedure, compared to the best visual acuity with correction before LASEK. The course of the healing process, the state of cornea and subjective symptoms were also evaluated. RESULTS: After 2 weeks in whole group the mean UCVA was in the same range of values compared with the BCVA before the operation. There were no postoperative complications observed. CONCLUSION: On the basis of our own observations we can say that LASEK is an effective and safe method for correction of refractive errors.

Follow-Up Studies↗
PubMed2002

Refractive surgery for refractive errors which cause strabismus. A report of 8 cases.

PURPOSE: While excimer laser refractive surgery is a well known procedure for correcting refractive errors, its use in adult patients with accommodative or partially accommodative esotropia who wish to remove their glasses, and those with high anisometropia and exotropia has not been extensively studied. We report our experience treating these two conditions with refractive surgery. METHODS: A retrospective review of the records of 8 adult patients with stable refractive error who underwent refractive surgery by the LASIK procedure. Three patients had accommodative esotropia, 3 had partially accommodative esotropia, and two patients had myopic anisometropia and exotropia. RESULTS: The LASIK refractive treatment corrected the strabismic deviation related to the hyperopia in the accommodative and partially accommodative esotropic patients. It also corrected the exotropia in the myopic anisometropic patients with exotropia. CONCLUSIONS: Refractive surgery is effective in treating accommodative and partially accommodative esotropia in adults and in cases of myopic anisometropia with exotropia.

Accommodation, Ocular↗
PubMed2002

[Refractive defects of the eye in descendents of a rural population in western Moravia].

The results from longitudinal follow-up of the incidence of refractive eye errors in a population from rural region have contributed to the characteristics of the regional gene pool. Generation born within 1950-1964 (Generation I.) was compared with that born within 1980-1994 (Generation II.). At the same time, a long-term follow-up has demonstrated changes in the quantity of phenotypes in absolute number (values of morbidity: generation I.--all types of refractive errors: urban population men 104/1000, women 132/1000. Rural population men 119/1000, women 135/1000. Generation II.: urban men 132/1000, women 169/1000, rural men 124/1000, women 136/1000. The difference in morbidity between women and men in the Ist and IInd generations, both urban and rural, has not changed. A more pronounced difference can be seen in urban population, namely at myopia in both generations (myopia urban population: generation I. men 40.8%, women 59.2%, generation II. men 43.9%, women 56.1%, myopia rural population: generation I.: men 44.2%, women 55.8%, generation II.: men 47.2%, women 52.8%. Hyperopia urban population: generation I., men 46.7%, women 53.3%, generation II. men 47.3%, women 52.7%. The incidence of astigmatism has shown constant ratio 1:1 both between men and women, and urban and rural populations. These changes were demonstrated most markedly in urban population, but these deviations are caused by emigration from rural to urban districts, especially from a hinterland. 10% of IInd generation (1980-1994) are relatives of Ist generation (1950-1964) only.

Adolescent↗