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PubMed1987

Origin of the adenohypophyseal vessels in the rat.

The origin of the portal vessels and the adjacent structures are described in rat embryos (gestational Days 11, 12 and 13) injected with India ink via the umbilical veins. Without the interposition of mesoderm Rathke's pouch comes into contact with the prosencephalic vesicle and its diverticulum, the processus infundibularis. Developmental changes in the shape of the prosencephalic vesicle influence the formation of Rathke's pouch. Before separation of the latter from the diencephalon and the processus infundibularis (Day 12), branches start growing around Rathke's pouch from the capillary network covering the prospective hypothalamus, and these vessels may be now considered as the forerunners of the primary portal vessels. After the separation of the anterior wall of Rathke's pouch from the diencephalon (Day 13) the primary portal veins are present and the hypothalamo-adenohypophyseal portal circulation is ready to function. The hypothalamic plexus is supplied by the primitive maxillary artery and by some small branches of the internal carotid arteries. The venous outflow leads into the intercavernous sinus and into the primitive maxillary veins. No arterial vessels in the primitive pharyngeal wall could be observed before the appearance of the primary portal vessels. The present observations clearly demonstrate that the adenohypophyseal vessels are derived only from the vascular network of the diencephalon, without contribution from the pharyngeal vessels, and that the portal vascular bed develops as a single entity.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

[NMR tomography of the major blood vessels in healthy persons].

Fourteen normal subjects were examined with the aid of a NMR-tomograph VMT-1100 manufactured by the Brucker Company, FRG. Two methods of image obtaining were employed, namely the recovery of inversion and spin-echo. To visualize the mesenterial vessels, image synchronization according to the ECG R wave was made use of in some cases. On axial sections the vessels showed as rounded formations with a clearly visible wall having a lighter coloration. On sagittal and coronary sections one could see vessels looking like tubular structures with a flat and even wall. The thoracic and abdominal parts of the aorta with the outgoing branches as well as the inferior vena cava were visualized well. To have a more complete visualization of the vessel wall and sites from where the vessels go out, the "zone of interest" was distinguished followed by the enlargement, which allowed a more detailed view of the objects under examination. NMR-tomography permitted obtaining information concerning the status of the vessels together with their form, size, winding and curvatures, the magnitude of the lumen of the vessels and thickness of their walls.

Abdomen↗
PubMed1987

[Damaging action of human recombinant TNF on tumor vessels as an aspect of its anti-neoplastic action against Meth A sarcoma in mice].

Effect of human recombinant TNF (rHu-TNF) on tumor blood vessels was investigated in relation to its mode of anti-neoplastic action against Meth A sarcoma in BALB/c mice. The extent of the blood vessel lesion was evaluated by measuring the degrees of blueing and hemorrhage after intravenous injection of Evan's blue. When injected intravenously into mice bearing Meth A cells in the abdominal skin transplanted 8 days previously, rHu-TNF, at doses of 3000 and 10,000 units/mouse produced dose-related lesioning of blood vessels in the sarcoma and the adjacent skin but not in the skin distant from the sarcoma. Similar lesioning of blood vessels in the adjacent skin was seen after intravenous administration of 10,000 units/mouse of rHu-TNF in mice with the sarcoma in which the cells had been selectively killed by intratumoral injection of acetic acid (20%, 0.01 ml). On the other hand, rHu-TNF (10,000 units/mouse, i.v.) produced weak lesioning of blood vessels in the granuloma tissue caused by subcutaneous implantation of felt pellets and in the adjacent skin but not in the operation wound in mice with the sarcoma. These results suggest that rHu-TNF damages newly formed blood vessels, particularly those connected with the sarcoma, without influencing blood vessels in normal skin and healing wounds in mice with Meth A sarcoma.

Animals↗
PubMed1985

Avulsed retinal vessels with and without retinal breaks--treatment and extended follow-up.

Between 1975 and 1984 65 cases of avulsed retinal vessels were studied. Of these 57 had avulsed vessels with retinal tear and 8 without. Of the affected eyes: 55.38 per cent were emmetropic, while myopia was present only in 29.23 per cent. Degenerative alterations (lattice-like lesions) were found in 4.61 per cent of cases. Argon laser treatment was applied in 30 cases (Group A), episcleral sponge implant with cryopexy and, in some instances, subsequent laser treatment in 34 cases (Group B). In one case vitrectomy with endodiathermy was performed. With the silastic sponge implants (Group B) we tried to obtain a high buckle in order to achieve immobilisation of the avulsed vessel through contact with the implant. The implants were applied in cases of avulsed vessels located posterior to the equator. Group B (sponge implant) showed fewer haemorrhagic recurrences after treatment than did Group A (laser application), the difference however was not statistically significant. It is also worth mentioning that in Group B the avulsed vessels which were occluded or empty of blood were to a statistically significant extent more numerous than in the laser-treated Group A. Retinal breaks with one or more avulsed retinal vessels constitute a distinct but uncommon clinical entity, which was first noted by Clark in 1962. Retinal vessels can also be avulsed by vitreous traction without a concurrent retinal tear, but can also be avulsed by vitreous traction without a concurrent retinal tear, but this condition is found much more rarely.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Humans↗
PubMed1985

Asymmetric distribution of charged domains on the two fronts of the endothelium of iris blood vessels.

The authors have studied the distribution of anionic and cationic sites on both luminal and abluminal endothelial aspects of iridial vessels in Macaca mulatta and Macaca fascicularis. With the animals in general anesthesia, anionic ferritin (AF) and cationic ferritin (CF) were either injected intravenam or perfused at known intraocular pressure (15-20 mmHg) through the anterior chamber. AF introduced intravenam was retained in the vessels' lumen. The tight junctions between the endothelial cells were impermeable and the plasmalemmal vesicles did not transport tracer to the iridial stroma. In contrast, when perfused through the anterior chamber, AF was present in the vessels' lumen. Here again the tight junctions between the endothelial cells were impermeable, but AF was contained within a great number of plasmalemmal vesicles. Iridial vessels were impermeable to CF perfused into the lumen, but a continuous layer of CF particles was found to adhere to the luminal plasma membrane. When perfused through the anterior chamber, CF was bound to the proteoglycans associated with collagen fibrils of the iridial stroma and basal laminae of stromal, pericytic, and endothelial cells but was never found in the vessels' lumen. These results indicate that different electrical charges are associated with the plasmalemmal vesicles on the luminal and abluminal fronts of iridial vessels. The authors suggest that in these vessels a unidirectional vesicular transport is responsible for the selective movement of anionic organic substances from the tissues of the eye to the bloodstream.

Animals↗
PubMed1975

Anterior and posterior groups of portal vessels in the avian pituitary: incidence in forty nine species.

The hypophyseal portal vessels were studied in forty nine species of birds. The primary capillary plexus in the median eminence is single or divided into an anterior and a posterior plexus. Irrespective of whether the primary capillary plexus is single or divided, distinct, non-interconnected anterior and posterior groups of portal vessels are present in all the species investigated. The anterior group of portal vessels originates in the anterior region of the median eminence and breaks up into capillaries in the cephalic lobe of the pars distalis; the posterior group of portal vessels originates in the posterior region of the median eminence and breaks up into capillaries in the caudal lobe of the pars distalis. This type of regional distribution of portal vessels appears to be of general occurrence in the avian pituitary. The median eminence in the species investigated shows an AF-positive anterior region and an AF-negative posterior region. The pars distalis is differentiated into histologically distinct cephalic and caudal lobes. The arrangement of the portal vessels into anterior and posterior groups provides morphological basis for the view that the functions of the cephalic lobe may be controlled by the anterior median eminence, whereas those of the caudal lobe may be controlled by the posterior median eminence. However, experimental data available to date do not suggest a physiological significance to the widespread incidence of the regional distribution of portal vessels in the avian pituitary.

Animals↗
PubMed1983

Suppression of lymphatic vessel contractility with inhibitors of arachidonic acid metabolism.

Contractions of lymphatic vessels play an important role in regulating lymph flow; however, little is known of the pharmacological properties of these vessels and the mechanisms regulating the contractions. Earlier work had suggested that arachidonic acid metabolites may play some role in the contractile process and in this report we have assessed the effects of various inhibitors of arachidonate metabolism on the contractions of bovine mesenteric lymphatic rings suspended in tissue baths. Aspirin and indomethacin (cyclooxygenase inhibitors), BW 755C (a cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase inhibitor) and FPL 55712 (a slow reacting substance of anaphylaxis-leukotriene-antagonist) suppressed the phasic contractions of spontaneously active vessels. The addition of arachidonate to noncontracting vessels elicited phasic and tonic contractile activities which were similarly blocked with these drugs, as were the contractions elicited with several agonists. These results suggest that lymphatic vessel contractions are extremely susceptible to suppression with inhibitors of arachidonate metabolism implying that these drugs may alter extravascular fluid dynamics by a direct effect on the lymphatic vessel. The intrinsic contractile regulatory mechanism may involve the production of arachidonate products within the vessel.

15-Hydroxy-11 alpha,9 alpha-(epoxymethano)prosta-5↗
PubMed1980

[A scanning electron microscope study of the fine angioarchitecture of "punctation" and "atypical vessels" (author's transl)].

The present study was aimed to evaluate the correlation of histologic findings with colposcopic findings of "punctation" and "atypical vessels". The stereoscopic angioarchitectures of "punctation" and "atypical vessels" were observed clearly by scanning electron microscope, utilizing cast formation technique of blood vessels on hysterectomy specimens. Scanning electron microscopy revealed following characteristic findings. 1) The angioarchitecture of "punctation" is composed of three strata. (a) subepithelial capillary network, (b) capillaries rise into the stromal papillae from subepithelial capillary network. (c) stromal vessels ending in subepithelial capillary network. 2) Stratum (b) is observed as "punctation" on colposcopy. 3) Stratum (b) alterate morphologically as follows; hairpin-like capillaries correspond to "punctation" in inflammation, gathered & twisted hairpin-like capillaries in dysplasia, asparagus-like vessels in C.I.S., cauliflower-like vessels in early invasive cancer, respectively. 4) The mesh of stratum (a) become denser as the lesions advance, and in early invasive cancer, the destruction of stratum (a) begin to appear. 5) The branchings of stratum (c) increase as the lesions advance. 6) Chaotic angioarchitecture is observed in invasive cancer, with complete destruction of stratum (a). 7) The morphologic alteration of stratum (b) is the most remarkable in three strata. Colposcopically, these alterations of angioarchitecture are observed as follows; in "punctation", "red spot" become larger and irregularity increase both in size, shape and arrangement, as the lesions advance, in "atypical vessels", "vascular pattern" increase irregularity both in shape, caliber, continuation and arrangement. As a result, by analysing these scanning electron microscopic pictures and comparing them with their colpophotographs and histologic findings, it can be emphasized that, it might be possible to make histologic diagnosis merely by colposcopy.

Capillaries↗
PubMed1995

Automatic vessel segmentation and quantification of the rat aortic ring assay of angiogenesis.

BACKGROUND: Pharmacologic control of angiogenesis is a promising new approach to the treatment of a variety of pathologic conditions including cancer. The recently developed in vitro rat aortic ring model provides a simple, reproducible assay for discovering angiogenic agonists and antagonists. However, quantification of results in this assay is time consuming, tedious, and subjective, because it involves visual inspection of images and manually counting the newly formed microvessels extending from the cultured aortic ring. This report describes an automated image analysis-based procedure for quantification of this assay that overcomes these difficulties. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: The designed image processing algorithm segments the vessels from gray scale images. A high-pass filter is used, and the results are separated into nonvascular and vessel compartments based on object size and shape. Quantification relies on identification of vessels intersecting a closed transect set a fixed distance from the aortic ring. The number and the total area of these vessels are determined. The entire operation has been automated and packaged in an application called Vessels. RESULTS: The correlation between computer-determined vessel area/vessel number and visual microvessel count is high (r2 = 0.91 and r2 = 0.86, respectively). CONCLUSION: Vessels offers high-speed, fully automatic batch processing including production of a hard copy for documentation. The application runs on the Apple family of computers. On a Quadra 800, the application can process approximately 30 images/hour, which is approximately 2.5 times faster than manual quantification of this assay.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

Phenotype changes in tumor vessels associated with the progression of hepatocellular carcinoma.

Human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is characterized by hypervascularity and tumor staining in angiograms, and tumor angiogenesis is considered indispensable for tumor growth. HCC is also characterized by an obvious multistage process of tumor progression. To find out in which stage of human hepatocarcinogenesis angiogenesis occurs, we have carried out a pathological study, of the phenotypic changes in tumor vessels taken from surgically resected liver tumors showing each step of the progression. Eleven early advanced HCCs (advanced HCC component in early HCC nodule, eAd HCC), seven early HCCs (eHCC) and six adenomatous hyperplasias (AH), the non-tumorous liver surrounding each and five normal livers were studied by lectin histochemistry and immunohistochemistry. The sinusoidal endothelial cells from the non-tumorous liver were shown to be negative for UEA-I (Ulex europaeus I), but the endothelial cells from the sinusoidal tumor vessels in advanced HCC components were strongly positive. In AH and eHCC, half the tumors were negative and the other half focally positive. In the early HCC lesion of eAdHCC, the rate of positivity for UEA-I was a little higher than in AH and eHCC but lower than in advanced HCC lesions in eAdHCC. Immunohistochemically, laminin was not detected in the sinusoids in the non-tumorous liver or in the sinusoidal tumor vessels in AH and eHCC. In eAdHCC, however, two early HCC lesions and four advanced HCC lesions were positive. An immunohistochemical examination for muscle actin revealed an increase in arterial tumor vessels in six advanced HCC lesions and one early HCC lesion of eAdHCC. The results indicate the emergence of UEA-I-positive sinusoidal tumor vessels to be most pronounced during the progression from eHCC to advanced HCC, and laminin-positive sinusoidal tumor vessels or actin-positive arterial tumor vessels to emerge mainly in advanced HCC.

Actins↗
PubMed1993

[Reappearance of collateral vessels in patients with chronic total coronary occlusion].

The reappearance of collateral vessels in patients with subtotal coronary artery occlusion or chronic total coronary artery occlusion was investigated. In all patients, the target vessels revealed restenosis after initial percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA), so a 2nd PTCA was performed for the same lesions. Each collateral vessel was evaluated before, during, and after PTCA by contralateral contrast injection during balloon inflation. Grading of collateral filling was as follows: 0 = none, 1 = filling of side branches only, 2 = partial filling of the epicardial segment, 3 = complete filling of the epicardial segment. Before the 1st PTCA, group A (n = 11) had subtotal occlusions (75-95%) at the target vessels, and group B (n = 8) had chronic total occlusions. Collateral vessels reappeared in all patients (100%) in group A, with good images. Reappearance of collateral vessels was good in 6 patients (75%) and poor in 2 (25%) in group B. Both the latter patients suffered from acute myocardial infarction. These results suggest that reappearance of collateral vessels may be relatively poor in chronic total occlusion patients, who may suffer from acute myocardial infarction due to acute coronary occlusion.

Aged↗
PubMed1994

Thrombogenicity of the injured vessel wall--role of antithrombin and heparin.

The thrombogenicity of the vessel wall after endothelial denudation is partly explained by an impaired inhibition of thrombin on the subendothelium. We have previously reported that thrombin coagulant activity can be detected on the vessel wall after balloon injury in vivo. The glycosaminoglycans of the subendothelium differ from those of the endothelium and have a lower catalyzing effect on antithrombin III, but inhibition of thrombin can still be augmented by addition of antithrombin III to the injured vessel surface. In this study the effect of antithrombin III and heparin on thrombin coagulant activity on the vessel wall was studied after in vivo balloon injury of the rabbit aorta using biochemical and immunohistochemical methods and thrombin was analysed after excision of the vessel. Continuous treatment with heparin, lasting until sacrifice of the animal, or treatment with antithrombin III resulted in significant reduction of thrombin coagulant activity on the injured aorta. Heparin given only in conjunction with the injury did not prevent thrombin coagulant activity or deposition of fibrin on the surface. The capacity of the injured vessel wall to inhibit thrombin in vitro was improved on aortic segments obtained from animals receiving antithrombin III but not from those given heparin. It is concluded that treatment with antithrombin III interferes with thrombin appearance on the vessel wall after injury and thereby reduces the risk for thrombosis.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

[Endogenous and therapeutic nitrates in healthy and arteriosclerotic blood vessels].

Nitrates belong to the most potent drugs for treatment of angina pectoris. Patients with this disease always show arteriosclerotic changes in their coronary arteries. In arteriosclerotic vessels endothelium-dependent relaxation induced by the endogenous vasodilator nitric oxide (NO) is markedly reduced. This article introduces a theory, whereby NO production is not reduced in arteriosclerotic vessels (in the arteriosclerotic aorta of the rabbit it is even enhanced) but that the activity of superoxide dismutase, which normally metabolizes free oxygen-radicals (O2-) is reduced and that NO is metabolized by accumulating superoxides. It is interesting that only endogenous nitrate (NO) can be metabolized by this pathway, whereas in arteriosclerotic vessels exogenous nitro-vasodilatators remain fully effective. For the clinical use of nitrates it is of particular importance that these exhibit different potencies for epicardial coronary vessels and the myocardial microcirculation. Nitroglycerin causes extensive relaxation in isolated large coronary arteries but has only a limited effect on middle-sized vessels and almost none on arteries in the microcirculation. These differences in efficacy of nitroglycerin in the coronary micro- and macrocirculation is probably due to the inability of microvessels to transform nitroglycerin into active metabolites such as S-nitroso-L-cysteine. Comparing vascular and clinical effects of nitroglycerin (in particular dilatation of coronary vessels) and of adenosine (acting in particular on the coronary microcirculation) discloses the great importance of the aforementioned effects on epicardial coronary vessels for treatment of angina pectoris. In this context a vasodilatating effect on the coronary microcirculation might not only be disadvantageous but could even trigger angina pectoris itself.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

[The significance of invasion and vessel permeation in squamous cell carcinoma of the uterine cervix with invasion to a depth of 3 mm or less].

Nine-five patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the cervix invading to a depth of 3 mm or less (microinvasive carcinoma) were retrospectively viewed in regard to the depth of stromal invasion, the width of horizontal spread, confluent invasion, vessel permeation and lymph node metastasis. The type of treatment and outcome were also evaluated. Confluent invasion was found in 6 patient (6%), and vessel permeation in 9 patients (9%). Lymph node dissections were performed on 85 patients, but no lymph node metastasis was found, irrespective of the presence of confluent invasion or vessel permeation. Fifty-five patients with no vessel permeation were treated by conization or total or modified racial hysterectomy, and none had a recurrence of the disease. Our results suggest that the presence of confluent invasion or vessel permeation does not influence the incidence of lymph node metastasis, but data in the literature indicate that confluent invasion and vessel permeation are risk factors for lymph node metastasis and invasive recurrence of the disease. We conclude that patients with invasion of depth 3m or less, with no confluent invasion and no vessel permeation, can be treated by conservative operation.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Quantitative coronary arteriography: efficient correction of catheter calibrated vessel measurement.

1. BACKGROUND. To quantify coronary dimensions from digitized angiograms, the coronary catheter is commonly used as a scaling device. However, significant errors may result due to different angiographic magnification (DM) of the vessel and of the catheter resulting from deviating locations in the X-ray field. These errors can be corrected by biplane angiography. Since this correction needs a gantry measurement system, DM correction is less widely used. We analyzed the magnitude of DM that affects the accuracy of catheter calibrated vessel dimensions and developed DM corrections requiring low computational and measurement effort. 2. MATERIAL AND METHODS. We filmed biplane a perspex bloc of vessel phantoms (0.3 - 4.5 mm) in the isocenter of the x-ray system to get the true pixel sizes before any calibration. The phantoms were detected in the digitized images using a cardiac workstation (Kontron Cardio 500) and calibrated with differently located catheters. The calibration error was then calculated for increasing distances phantom-catheter. For DM correction, we developed procedures decreasing: (i) the computational effort (E) by approximated (A) formulas, as well as (ii) the measurement effort; this decrease approximates measured gantry settings (M) through fixed pre-settings for distances (D) and videochain (V). The several DM corrections were applied on the phantom images to analyze their correction performance and remaining calibration error. 3. RESULTS. The calibration of correctly detected pixel dimensions by a differentially magnified catheter causes a deviation of the absolute vessel dimensions, increasing with the vessel size. However, as shown in Table 1, DM correction reduces this calibration error substantially. Table 1: Calibration errors of catheter calibration and performance of DM corrections with decreasing effort (50 mm location distance phantom-catheter) 4. CONCLUSIONS. DM causes errors of vessel diameters of up to 15%. Even a measurement-free procedure (fixed presettings) corrects 71% of DM. Thus, the only additional effort of selecting an angiogram from the opposite view and marking the vessel and catheter locations in both images should be accepted.

Calibration↗
PubMed1995

Ultrastructural Localization of elastin-like immunoreactivity in the extracellular matrix around human small lymphatic vessels.

The distribution of elastin-like immunoreactivity around small lymphatic vessels was investigated in three different human tissues (skin, heart and dental pulp) using high resolution immunocytochemistry. Quantitative assessment of the immunogold reaction was performed with an image analysis system. Intense and moderate elastin-immuno-reactivity was detected in the extracellular matrix around small lymphatic vessels of the skin and heart, respectively. By contrast, absence of immunostaining was observed around lymphatic vessels in the dental pulp. Although the staining was mostly detectable on the non-fibrillar amorphous component of the extracellular matrix, some microfibrils were also immunostained in close proximity to the lymphatic vessel wall. These findings support the concept that small lymphatic vessels may be heterogeneous with respect to the composition of the extracellular matrix around their wall. The observation that it is possible to observe small lymphatic vessels displaying low or no elastin-immunoreactivity in the adjoining matrix militates against the hypothesis that elastic fibers play a pivotal role in the mechanisms that regulate the function of small lymphatic vessels.

Elastin↗
PubMed1996

Single (culprit) vessel disease in octogenarians with acute myocardial infarction and unstable angina.

It is generally thought that coronary artery disease (CAD) in octogenarians would involve multiple vessels. The purpose of the current study was to determine the relative importance of single vessel disease in octogenarians with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and unstable angina and its outcome from a revascularization procedure such as percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA) or coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG). Our study included 70 patients (25 men, 45 women) aged 80 or older (mean, 84.5 +/- 0.5) admitted for the first time to the St. Agnes Hospital coronary care unit during 1994 for AMI or unstable angina. Patients admitted primarily for congestive heart failure, cardiogenic shock, hypertensive heart disease, or cardiomyopathy were excluded. Fifty patients (71.4%) had AMI and 20 (28.6%) had unstable angina. Of the 19 patients who had cardiac catheterization done, 10 had single vessel disease, 8 had flow-limiting disease in 2 or more coronary arteries, and 1 had no flow-limiting disease. The mean ejection fraction was 56.5 +/- 6.9 in patients with single vessel disease, 48.0 +/- 3.3 in those with multiple vessel disease, and 38.7 +/- 1.7 in those who did not have cardiac catheterization done. Fourteen PTCA (20%) and 3 CABG (4.3%) were performed without inhospital mortality from the procedures. There were 9 deaths (12.9%) overall: none among 10 patients with single vessel disease, 1 (12.5%) among 8 patients with widespread CAD, and 8 (15.7%) among 51 patients who did not have cardiac catheterization. Study results emphasize the need for recognition and treatment of single vessel disease by revascularization procedures to reduce mortality from CAD in octogenarians.

Aged↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[The internal thoracic blood vessels (internal thoracic arteries and veins) and their practical significance].

Internal thoracic blood vessels (A. et Vv. thoracicae internae) are parietal vessels of the thoracic anterior wall. Because of their position, they are often exposed to injuries during the fracture of the ribs and the sternal bone. These facts require a general knowledge about the anatomical variations of these vessels, specifically the knowledge concerning their mutual relationship, their anastomoses and their distance from the lateral margins of the sternal bone. Due to the poor and different data in the available literature, we directed our investigations towards the study and confirmation of the described anatomical variations of the internal thoracic blood vessels. In this study we investigated the distance between the internal thoracic artery and the lateral margins of the sternal bone, the level of its bifurcation, the number of the internal thoracic veins and anastomoses between them. The investigation was carried out on 300 formalin specimens consisting of the anterior wall of the thorax (persons of different ages and sexes) by using the method of dissection and the method of contrast injection. In adults (200 specimens), the distance between the arterial trunk and the lateral margin of the sternal bone was not equal in the first fifth or sixth intercostal spaces, but in children up to five years of age (100 specimens), the distance was almost the same. In adults, the internal thoracic artery was nearest to the sternal bone in the first intercostal space, but going downward the artery was gradually more and more distant from the sternum and in the sixth intercostal space the distance measured approximately from 11 mm to 13 mm. In children, the distance of the artery from the lateral margin of the sternal bone, just in the above mentioned intercostal spaces, was from 5 mm to 10 mm. There was no difference according to sex in any of the two groups. Most frequently, the internal thoracic artery gave off its terminal branches at the level of the sixth costal cartilage (adults--35% and children--45%), and most rarely, the bifurcation of the artery was at the level of the seventh costal cartilage (adults--10% and children--8%). The internal thoracic vein that accompanies the same named artery, could be either single or double, on one or both sides. In cases of double veins-the artery was situated between the two of them, but in cases of single vein-the vein was located medially to the artery. In 82% of cases in the adult group, and in 69% of cases in the children-group, there were two veins accompanying the artery. The right and the left internal thoracic veins were connected in the region of the sternal bone by the retrosternal venous net (specifically in the region of the manubrium) and by one venous vessel lying in front of the xiphoid process. According to the position and the course of that venous vessel it could be called "arcus venosus prexiphoideus". The internal thoracic blood vessels were enclosed by the unique fascial sheath. They were superiorly separated from the costal pleura by the endothoracic fascia and inferiorly by the transversal thoracic muscle (m. transversus thoracis). The safest approach to the internal thoracic artery was at the level of the second and the third intercostal space. During the approach through some of the lower intercostal spaces it was necessary to be very careful because they could be narrowed at their anterior ends.

Adult↗