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Behavioral strategies in ants in changing conditions of food motivation.

Learning in ants was studied in a multiple choice symmetrical maze at different levels of social food motivation. Myrmica rubra scout ants were found to be able to change their behavioral strategy rapidly when families were suddenly changed from a low level of motivation to a high level and vice versa. In the "sated" state, there was clearly evident investigative activity, which led to high levels of variability and instability in the maze habit. In the "starved" state, there was a rapid minimization of movement trajectories, and most ants used only one dominant movement scheme. The initial level of food motivation determined how ants learned in the maze and their ability to change their behavioral strategy.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Motivation for hepatitis B vaccine acceptance among medical and physician assistant students.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the acceptance rate and motivation for acceptance of hepatitis B virus (HBV) vaccine among preclinical medical and physician assistant (PA) students in comparison with similar data obtained from resident and staff physicians. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey of all second-year medical and PA students (n = 170) at the University of Iowa College of Medicine was conducted in Spring 1992, requesting demographic data, preventive health measure use, and reasons for HBV vaccine acceptance. Responses were compared with data obtained from resident and staff physicians during a concurrent hospital-wide survey. Rates of vaccine acceptance and use of other preventive health measures were compared across the physician groups. Factor analysis was performed to examine reasons for vaccine acceptance among the students. RESULTS: The questionnaire was completed by 162 of the 170 students (95%). Nearly all (99%) of the eligible students had received at least one dose of the HBV vaccine. Vaccine acceptance rates were significantly higher among the students than among either the resident or the staff physicians (p = 0.003, p < 0.0001, respectively). Influenza vaccine acceptance and seat belt use were significantly higher among the resident and staff physicians than they were among the students. The students attributed their high HBV vaccine acceptance rate to the recommendations of authority figures. Threat of illness and issues of vaccine safety and efficacy were relatively unimportant among the students, though the residents and staff physicians reported threat of illness to be an important motivator for vaccination. CONCLUSIONS: Excellent HBV vaccine acceptance rates may be achieved among preclinical medical and PA students. Recommendations of authority figures are important motivators for HBV vaccine acceptance among students.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

[Influence of psychotherapy motivation on the course of psychotherapy].

The motivational characteristics of psychotherapy inpatients should be of crucial importance for treatment effectiveness. In the present study on 219 patients from two psychosomatic-psychotherapeutic treatment centers, four dimensions of motivation for psychotherapy (illness experience; lay etiology; treatment expectations; openness to psychotherapy) were assessed using the Questionnaire for the Measurement of Psychotherapy Motivation (Fragebogen zur Messung der Psychotherapiemotivation; FMP) and related to pre-post changes in symptomatology. In these analyses, psychological symptoms (SCL-90-R) as well as interpersonal problems (IIP) were considered as indicators of treatment effects. The results support the expectation that (a) a psychosocial causal attribution of illness symptoms and (b) a marked general openness to psychotherapy at the pretreatment interview predict more positive treatment outcomes. Implications of the results for the indication of pretreatment interventions are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Effects of haloperidol on cue-induced autonomic and behavioral indices of heroin reward and motivation.

RATIONALE: Most theoretical conceptions of motivation presume an internal state of sympathetic nervous system activation that precedes and accompanies goal-seeking behavior. OBJECTIVES: The present study investigates the animals' physiological and behavioral response to presentation of environmental cues predictive of availability (S+) or non-availability (S-) of heroin in the goal box of a straight-arm alley. METHODS: Animals were trained to discriminate between two olfactory cues, one predictive of the delivery of i.v. heroin (0.1 mg/kg) upon the rat's entry into the goal box of the runway (the S+) and another cue (the S-) predictive of i.v. saline upon goal-box entry. Once discriminative performance had stabilized, animals were challenged with each of four haloperidol treatments in a counterbalanced manner (0.0, 0.075, 0.15, 0.3 mg/kg i.p.). Run times and heart rates (measured via radiotelemetry) served as the dependent variables on every trial. RESULTS: Both behavioral and physiological measures of motivation responded differentially to S+ and S- cues. Haloperidol had no effect during or immediately following S- trials, nor prior to reinforcer delivery on S+ trials. However, the behavioral and physiological consequences of heroin delivery during dopamine receptor antagonism were reliable - animals ran more slowly and showed less activation (lower heart rates) on the first S+ trial following a heroin + haloperidol experience. CONCLUSIONS: The current data demonstrate that physiological and behavioral indices of cue-induced motivation remained intact during haloperidol challenge, while the reinforcing consequences of heroin appear to have been attenuated by dopamine receptor antagonism.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Experimental manipulation of attentional bias increases the motivation to drink alcohol.

RATIONALE: Attentional bias for alcohol-related cues is associated with the motivation to drink alcohol, possibly because attentional bias increases craving. OBJECTIVES: We examined whether an experimentally induced attentional bias would influence subjective and behavioural indices of the motivation to drink. METHODS: Heavy social drinkers (N=40) completed an attentional training procedure, in which half of the participants were trained to direct their attention towards alcohol-related cues ('attend alcohol'), and half of the participants were trained to direct their attention away from alcohol-related cues ('avoid alcohol'). After attentional training, participants rated their urge to drink alcohol, and the amount of beer consumed during a taste test was measured. RESULTS: The attentional training procedure produced significant changes in attentional bias in the predicted direction in both experimental groups. Attentional training produced an increase in the urge to drink alcohol in the attend alcohol group, and the attend alcohol group consumed more beer than the avoid alcohol group during the taste test. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that a potentiated attentional bias for alcohol-related cues can increase the motivation to drink alcohol. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Motivational aspects of maternal anxiolysis in lactating rats.

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVE: This study examines the role of maternal motivation on the reduced anxiety-like responses displayed by lactating rats in the plus maze test. RESULTS: Maternal animals, both lactating and sensitized (ovariectomized females behaving maternal after a continuous exposure to pups), displayed anxiolytic-like responses in the plus maze test in contrast to ovariectomized non-maternal rats. However, the levels of experimental anxiety were lower in lactating than in sensitized females. Pups placed in the open arms of the maze further reduced the low levels of anxiety-like behavior of both sensitized and lactating rats. Low doses of haloperidol (0.05 and 0.1 mg/kg), a dopamine antagonist, which interfere with maternal motivation but has neither anxiolytic nor anxiogenic effect in the plus maze test, significantly increased the anxiety-like responses of lactating rats. The presence of the pups in the open arms of the maze overrode the behavioral effect of haloperidol on lactating dams' anxiety-related behavior. CONCLUSIONS: These experiments show that maternity induces changes in the way the animals react to the environment, rendering them less anxious to aversive stimuli. The degree of experimental anxiolysis displayed by maternal animals varies according to their maternal motivation, which is modulated by the female's endocrine state, the pups and/or the dopaminergic system.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

The effect of systemic d-amphetamine on motor versus motivational processes in the rat.

This study examined the effects of systemic amphetamine in rats performing a reaction time task in which motivation and motor readiness were independently varied. Visual cues indicated the number of trials (one, two or three) needed before reinforcement was made available (i.e., reward cost). Lower reward cost was reflected in both a greater proportion of correctly completed trials and faster reaction times. Reaction times were also shorter as a function of increasing time from start of trial to the onset of the imperative stimulus (foreperiod), reflecting motor readiness or temporal probability summation. It was found that increasing dose of amphetamine resulted in faster reaction times, but the manner in which reaction time was speeded more closely resembled that of motor readiness than it did the speeding due to increasing motivation. Furthermore, the effects on performance of amphetamine and motivational condition were found to be entirely independent: there was no evidence to suggest that amphetamine enhanced, or disrupted, the expectation of forthcoming work or the response vigor which this engenders. It is concluded that systemic amphetamine does not act simply to amplify a natural reward signal. By contrast, amphetamine was found to enhance the effect of foreperiod, suggestive of a mechanism for the psychomotor stimulating effects of amphetamine.

Amphetamine↗
PubMed2001

Individual differences in sucrose consumption in the rat: motivational and neurochemical correlates of hedonia.

RATIONALE: Rats exhibit marked individual differences in consumption of freely available sucrose; however, the underlying mechanism(s) contributing to such interindividual differences remain unclear. OBJECTIVES: The current study examined whether: 1) motivational differences (as reflected by the degree of operant output to procure sucrose reward) underlie variability in sugar consumption, and 2) whether potential differences in dopaminergic and/or opioidergic systems contribute to such differences. METHODS: In the initial experiment, Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into those that spontaneously consumed High or Low amounts of sucrose, based on the consumption of freely available sugar (+/-2 SD from group median) over 7 consecutive test days. The potential differences in their motivation to seek and "earn" sucrose solution rewards were measured using the progressive ratio (PR) schedule of reinforcement. RESULTS: Performance of both groups on the PR schedule was sensitive to the concentration of sucrose (i.e. the higher the concentration, the greater the behavioral output). Furthermore, the High sucrose consumers earned a greater number of reinforcements (20% sucrose solution) than the Low group. Parenthetically, the degree of behavioral output by the High (but not the Low) group was comparable to that emitted for water under water-deprived condition. Treatment with the opioid antagonist, naloxone, attenuated PR performance for sucrose, whereas d-amphetamine (0.5 mg/kg) enhanced it. Furthermore, naloxone attenuated amphetamine-enhanced responding for sucrose reward, suggesting an interaction between the dopaminergic and opioidergic systems in the mediation of sucrose reward. CONCLUSIONS: These results support the contention that motivational differences may partially account for individual variability in sucrose consumption, and that dopaminergic and/or opioidergic agents differentially affect the "wanting" and/or "liking" of sucrose in the High and Low sucrose consumers.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

[Motivation for in-patient psychotherapy among patients of a psychosomatic pain clinic].

OBJECTIVE: For a number of pain patients inpatient psychotherapy is an adequate treatment. Many of these patients are lacking in motivation, though. The present study aimed at identifying factors associated with acceptance or rejection of inpatient psychotherapy. METHODS: 63 patients of a psychosomatic pain clinic underwent a multimodal assessment based on a psychosomatic interview as well as a set of psychodiagnostic questionnaires regarding sociodemographic factors, symptomatology (pain intensity, BSS, SCL-90-R, BDI), state of chronification, psychological defense mechanisms (DSQ) and biographic traumatisation (risk index). RESULTS: 71% of the patients were recommended in-patient psychotherapy. Among those, 63% accepted the recommendation, 27% rejected it. Among the patients who accepted in-patient psychotherapy, the extent of total psychological impairment as well as severity of depression and anxiety were more severe and the state of chronification tended to be less marked than in the rejecting group. Referring to sociodemographic variables, pain intensity,physical impairment and severity of biographic traumatisation,no significant difference between the groups could be shown. CONCLUSIONS: In our highly selected population the extent of psychiatric comorbidity and the state of chronification determined motivation for in-patient psychotherapy. Further studies should focus on unselected pain patients and on differences in motivation between various forms of psychotherapy.

Aged↗
PubMed2006

What do we know about cognitive and motivational effects of small group tutorials in problem-based learning?

Students collaborating in small groups is a characteristic of problem-based learning (PBL) that is receiving increased consideration in the literature. In this paper findings from studies in this area are synthesized and discussed. A distinction is made between studies focusing on cognitive effects of group learning and studies focusing on motivational effects of group learning. Studies concentrating on the cognitive effects of small-group PBL seem to demonstrate that activation of prior knowledge, recall of information, causal reasoning or theory building, cognitive conflicts leading to conceptual change and collaborative learning construction take place in the tutorial group. Studies focusing on the motivational effects of PBL demonstrate that group discussion positively influences students' intrinsic interest in the subject matter under discussion. The studies also demonstrate that a haphazard discussion in the tutorial group or a discussion that just scratches the surface, probably caused by students being less motivated, inhibits student learning. Several studies are reported providing suggestions on how to optimize group work in PBL. Although the studies demonstrate that group learning in PBL may have positive effects, much more research is needed to obtain more evidence and deeper insight in the cognitive and emotional effects of small group learning in PBL.

Cognition↗
PubMed2006

Motivations for pregnancy planning among Mexican immigrant women in North Carolina.

OBJECTIVES: To enhance understanding of 1) Mexican immigrant women's attitudes toward planning their pregnancies and the factors that influence their fertility preferences, and 2) the effect of migration on their pregnancy planning decisions. METHODS: Qualitative in-depth interviews were conducted with 11 Mexican immigrant women living in North Carolina. Participants were recruited by means of snowball sampling. Interviews were conducted in Spanish in the women's homes. Interviewing and analysis were conducted iteratively to allow emerging themes and interpretations to be developed and validated in subsequent interviews. RESULTS: The women were strongly motivated to plan their pregnancies. Their primary considerations in pregnancy planning were their ability to give their children a good life and their ability to enjoy their families. Individual personal aspirations did not emerge as an important consideration. Migration intensified the women's felt need to plan their pregnancies. CONCLUSIONS: The Mexican immigrant women in this study had a strong familistic orientation. Far from diminishing their interest in planning their pregnancies, however, the high value they placed on family was their primary motivation for pregnancy planning. Migration to the U.S. intensified their felt need to plan their pregnancies. Understanding of the women's motivations for family planning may help health care providers better address the family planning needs of Mexican immigrant women.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

The role of motivation in the performance of conditioned reflex switching of a maze skill in response to substitution of food reward quality in ants of the species Myrmica rubra.

The characteristics of learning in ants - active Myrmica rubra foragers - were studied in a maze at different levels of colony carbohydrate food need with reinforcement consisting of carbohydrate (sugar syrup) or protein (pupae of Lasius niger ants). Measures of the maze skill during learning reinforced with syrup were somewhat worse than those during learning reinforced with pupae, especially in terms of time-based measures. Ants were able to modify the acquired conditioned reflex reaction when the quality of reinforcement changed. At high levels of food need (" hungry" colony), substitution of syrup with larvae and vice versa was followed by transformation of the previously formed skill; this occurred at both experimental periods (training and testing). At low levels of motivation ("sated colony"), the optimized maze habit formed with protein reinforcement was replaced in the test with carbohydrate reinforcement by a "stochastic," unoptimized behavior with a dominance of investigative activity. These experiments demonstrated that conditioned reflex switching can occur in higher social insects - ants - in which the different forms depend on the level of colony need for food and, respectively, on the level of social food-related motivation of forager ants. The special importance of using the switch activating the corresponding motivational system before changing the reinforcement food quality is emphasized.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Motivational interviewing for improving adherence to antiretroviral medications.

Many interventions have been developed to address barriers to antiretroviral medication adherence, but few have focused on motivation, a fundamental component of behavior change. Research on other health behavior changes and a few pilot studies investigating motivational interviewing (MI) for adherence to antiretroviral medication suggests that MI may be highly beneficial by helping to motivate patients with HIV to adhere to their medications. Existing research, although limited, suggests that MI combined with other interventions is feasible and efficacious for improving adherence to antiretroviral medications. With continued development and refinement of antiretroviral adherence interventions that incorporate MI, more persons with HIV infection can be expected to choose to make the difficult changes necessary for them to benefit from antiretroviral therapy.

Adult↗
PubMed1987

Place preference conditioning reveals the involvement of D1-dopamine receptors in the motivational properties of mu- and kappa-opioid agonists.

The role of D1 dopamine receptors in mediating the motivational properties of opioid agonists was investigated by use of place preference conditioning. Administration of the D1 receptor antagonist SCH 23390 (0.001-0.5 mg/kg) or the kappa-opioid receptor agonist U-69593 (0.16 mg/kg) produced conditioned place aversions. In contrast, the mu-opioid agonist, morphine (3.0 mg/kg) was appetitively reinforcing. Chronic infusion of SCH 23390 (1.0 mg/kg/day) during conditioning abolished the effects of both opioid agonists. These data demonstrate the specific involvement of D1 receptors in the motivational properties of mu- and kappa-opioid agonists and suggest that dopaminergic systems are crucial for the expression of both reinforcing and aversive motivational states.

Analgesics↗
PubMed1991

Dopamine receptors in the ventral tegmental area affect motor, but not motivational or reflexive, components of copulation in male rats.

Microinjection of apomorphine into the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of male rats was previously shown to delay the onset of copulation and slow its rate, presumably by stimulating impulse-regulating autoreceptors on cell bodies of the A10 mesocorticolimbic dopamine tract. Such stimulation would be expected to slow the firing rate of these neurons and, thereby, to impair locomotion and/or motivational processes. The present experiments tested whether the delayed onset and slowed rate of copulation were related to deficits in motor performance, sexual motivation, and/or genital reflexes. In X-maze tests the speed of running to all 4 goal boxes was slowed; however, the percentage of trials on which the male chose the female's goal box was not decreased. Examination of videotaped copulation tests revealed that the male showed fewer complete copulatory behaviors (mounts, intromissions, and ejaculations), but more misdirected or incomplete copulatory attempts after apomorphine in the VTA. There were also fewer scores of active, as opposed to inactive, behaviors, and the onset and rate of copulation were slowed. The total number of female directed behaviors was not different in apomorphine tests, compared to vehicle. Finally, tests of ex copula genital reflexes revealed no significant effects of apomorphine in the VTA on erections, penile movements, or seminal emissions. These data suggest a role of the VTA in the motor aspects and/or sensorimotor integration of copulation. Sexual motivation and ex copula genital reflexes appeared to be unaffected by apomorphine in the VTA.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

Idioms and mental imagery: the metaphorical motivation for idiomatic meaning.

We conducted three experiments to investigate the mental images associated with idiomatic phrases in English. Our hypothesis was that people should have strong conventional images for many idioms and that the regularity in people's knowledge of their images for idioms is due to the conceptual metaphors motivating the figurative meanings of idioms. In the first study, subjects were asked to form and describe their mental images for different idiomatic expressions. Subjects were then asked a series of detailed questions about their images regarding the causes and effects of different events within their images. We found high consistency in subjects' images of idioms with similar figurative meanings despite differences in their surface forms (e.g., spill the beans and let the cat out of the bag). Subjects' responses to detailed questions about their images also showed a high degree of similarity in their answers. Further examination of subjects' imagery protocols supports the idea that the conventional images and knowledge associated with idioms are constrained by the conceptual metaphors (e.g., the MIND IS A CONTAINER and IDEAS ARE ENTITIES) which motivate the figurative meanings of idioms. The results of two control studies showed that the conventional images associated with idioms are not solely based on their figurative meanings (Experiment 2) and that the images associated with literal phrases (e.g., spill the peas) were quite varied and unlikely to be constrained by conceptual metaphor (Experiment 3). These findings support the view that idioms are not "dead" metaphors with their meanings being arbitrarily determined. Rather, the meanings of many idioms are motivated by speakers' tacit knowledge of the conceptual metaphors underlying the meanings of these figurative phrases.

Adult↗
PubMed1986

Characteristics and motives of women choosing elective induction of labour.

Personal characteristics of healthy term pregnant women who chose elective induction or spontaneous onset of labour and the motives for their choice were assessed. Almost 50% of 237 women with uncomplicated pregnancies opted for elective induction when offered the opportunity. These women appeared to have had more complaints during their pregnancy and menstrual periods, more complications in their obstetrical history and to be more anxious about their labour than women who chose a spontaneous onset of labour. Predominant motives were a feeling of safety and the desire to shorten the duration of pregnancy. These characteristics and motives seem to reflect a lack of trust in physical reproductive functions. It is concluded that in evaluating effects of elective induction of labour, pre-existing differences between women who choose elective induction and women who opt for a spontaneous onset must be taken into account.

Anxiety↗
PubMed1994

Vigilance and effects of fatigability, practice and motivation on simple reaction time tests in patients with lesion of the frontal lobe.

Despite the wide use of RT tests in brain-damaged patients assessment, effects of the level of vigilance, fatigability, practice and motivation on RT have been poorly investigated. We assessed vigilance and effects of fatigability, practice and motivation on brain-damaged patients suffering from lesion of the prefrontal cortex prominent in basofrontal areas and controls using simple RT tests. Our study showed fatigability and practice effects which did not affect RT differences between groups, whereas motivation effect was not significant. Finally, patients did not suffer from a deficit of vigilance. These results suggest that the attentional disorders demonstrated in the same patient group were related neither to a higher sensitivity to fatigability nor to an insufficient practice.

Adolescent↗