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The U.S. farm work force numbers approximately 6.5 million. The health risks connected with their farm tasks are many and varied. Accidents and illnesses are caused by tractors, specialized farming equipment, chemicals, zoonoses, fungi, sensitizers, and the environment of confinement buildings. The scattered nature of the work force makes preventive measures difficult to implement.
439 sera of domestic animals and various number (150-500) of human sera of the Cape Verde Islands were examined for antibodies against Coxiella burnetti, Brucella abortus, B.melitensis, Listeria monocytogenes, Shigella dysenteriae, S.flexneri, S. boydii, S.sonnei, Campylobacter jejuni, C.fetus ssp. intestinalis, Yersinia enterocolitica, Toxoplasma gondii and Chlamydia of the PLT-group. It could be shown, that on the Cape Verde Islands there is to be counted with numerous zoonoses due to various microorganisms in man as well as in domestic animals. Q-Fever examination showed exceedingly high positivity of human sera (81.6%) and those of domestic animals (84.7%). One of the main reasons for the wide distribution of infectious diseases, especially diarrhoeal diseases such as Shigellosis, Yersiniosis and Campylobacter infections as well as Salmonellosis and Amebiasis on the Islands is the bad hygienic situation, an improvement of which as well as an intensification of research work, health education and a better medical care would be essential for the control of communicable diseases on the Cape Verde Islands.
Concern over the appearance of resistant bacteria in domestic animals and birds led in Great Britain to the establishment of a Government Committee of Enquiry on the use of antibiotics in Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine known as the Swan Committee. This Committee made a number of recommendations about surveillance and control of diseases of animals communicable to man which included the establishment of a system of data collection. These recommendations were incorporated in a legal statute, the Zoonoses Order of 1975. Data on the incidence of salmonellosis and of antibiotic resistance in Great Britain are presented in this paper together with a consideration of the epidemiology of salmonellosis and its control.
The present work describes the discovery of an organoleptic alteration in some batchs of suckling mouse brain rabies vaccine for human use, produced in the Central Laboratory of Public Health of the Province of Buenos Aires. This alteration consists in the appearance of fibrous particles, light-white, slightly perceptible, suspended in the diluent. The production procedure is that of Fuenzalida and Palacios (4), with the modifications proposed by the Panamerican Zoonoses Center (Larghi and col.) (6), which include a refrigerated centrifugation of the viral suspension to 17,000 g during 10 minutes. This alteration caused 20% or more of dosis loss and a decrease in vaccine potency (2). In order to determine the origin of this alteration, we controlled the homogenization systems, the elements employed, the production of experimental batchs with diversity of isotonizators (dextrose-sucrose) and preservatives, the utilization of glass filters in the treatment of water, all drugs employed, variation of pH of diluent solutions, double centrifugation, the glass employed (ampoules, flasks), pumps of dispensation and wash systems (3) (5). We conclude that the alterations are produced by partial freezing of the infected brain suspension to 10% in water, during the last part of the centrifugation. Particles are formed by irreversible precipitation of a proteic nature (1) (7). It is recommended that during the production of this vaccine the temperature be maintained between 3 to 5 degrees C carefully avoiding freezing the brain suspension in distilled water.
Rabies is endemic in India. The status of Rabies at the national level is difficult to present because of inadequate reporting system. However, a national awareness has been created over the years (Anonym 1968, 1970, 1974, 1977, 1978, 1980, 1983, 1984a and 1984b). National Canine Rabies Control Programme finalised by the National Committee on Zoonoses has been taken up recently by the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. Use of mass communication media like newspaper, radio and television has also been started. The department of Veterinary Public Health & Epidemiology started working on Rabies in 1979. Observations of the first six years constitute this paper.
The proximity of human populations to communities of large animals in Africa creates suitable conditions for the transmission of zoonotic diseases. Since the indiscriminate destruction of these communities to control zoonoses is highly undesirable, the epidemiological role of the animals must be properly assessed in order that alternative methods of control can be developed. For this purpose, techniques should be available to permit large animals to be examined alive. Immobilization techniques using various drugs were tried but only limited success was achieved with the species most likely to be involved in the transmission cycle of trypanosomiasis. In the study reported here, xylazine was the drug selected, one reason being that an antagonist was not required. The drug was administered from a distance by means of a projectile syringe shot from a special rifle. In seven attempts, two waterbuck (Kobus defassa) and one reedbuck (Redunca redunca) were sufficiently immobilized to be handled. The reactions of all seven animals, whether successfully immobilized or not, are discussed.
Evidence has recently been accumulating that domestic animals may play an ancillary role in rickettsial zoonoses. In particular, attention has been focused on the activity of Rickettsia prowazekii in Egyptian and Ethiopian livestock and their ticks. An attempt has now been made to confirm previous findings of R. prowazekii in the sera of zebus, sheep and goats in Ethiopia, which brought epidemic typhus into the category of a zoonosis. This attempt was not successful, but tests did indicate that some ticks were infected with R. conori (boutonneuse fever or tick-borne typhus) and Coxiella burneti (Q fever), this being the first evidence for the existence of these agents in Ethiopia.Antibodies against R. conori were found in significant numbers in the sera of sheep and goats from one locality, but Q-fever antibodies were surprisingly rare.
The Mastomys natalensis species complex, subdivided into genetically distinct species having diploid chromosome numbers 2n = 32 and 2n = 36, is a reservoir for several zoonoses including Lassa fever and plague. This report describes a study to determine whether these sibling species and three other rodent species have different potential as reservoirs for plague. It was found that M. natalensis (2n = 32) was significantly more resistant to experimental plague infection (50% survived inoculation with 120 000 Yersinia pseudotuberculosis subsp. pestis) than was M. coucha (2n = 36) (none of which survived doses of 190 Y. pseudotuberculosis subsp.pestis). In descending order of resistance were M. natalensis, Aethomys chrysophilus, M. coucha, Tatera leucogaster and A. namaquensis. No A. namaquensis survived inoculation of 10 or more plague bacilli.Previous reports on susceptibility to plague or other infections, which were based exclusively on findings in the universally distributed laboratory-bred Mastomys, are thus not necessarily applicable to the M. natalensis species as a whole but probably only to M. coucha. The Y. pseudotuberculosis subsp. pestis fraction-1 passive haemagglutination test appeared to be relatively insensitive in that only 5 out of 47 animals surviving experimental plague infection showed specific antibodies 6 weeks after challenge.The geographic distribution of human plague in southern Africa corresponds closely with that of the plague-susceptible species, M. coucha, while the resistant species, M. natalensis, predominates in areas where human plague has not been recorded. The role of A. namaquensis in the ecology of plague needs to be carefully studied and its possible importance in plague research should be investigated further.
Yersinioses are zoonoses inspite of the fact, that the pathogen is rarely transferred directly from the animal to man, but mostly from contaminated food or contaminated surroundings. Enteritis or enterocolitis develop in most cases after infection with Y. enterocolitica (enteritic form), whereas pseudoappendicitis accompanied by massive mesenterial lymphadenitis of the ileocecal lymph nodes with or without the participation of adjacent parts of the intestine develops after infection with Y. pseudotuberculosis (pseudoappendicitic form). Some complications like arthritis and erythema nodosum occur rather frequently and may help to establish the diagnosis; septicemia occurs very rarely and is as yet lethal in 50% of cases. Confirmation of yersiniosis is in general not possible on clinical grounds only. Also microscopic as well as macroscopic morphological findings will allow a tentative diagnosis only. Confirmation must come from bacteriologic or serologic findings.
A more extensive knowledge of the state of health of animals intended for slaughter during the period between birth and transportation to the slaughter-house, is essential to public health, particularly as regards the incidence of zoonoses and administration of drugs. In an integrated system of surveillance of the animal and meat production chain, it will be the duty of the veterinary practitioner to supervise the health of the animals by preventive and curative measures. This system should involve an exchange of information between producer, slaughter-house, veterinarians, those who give guidance on agricultural matters, supervising bodies and research institutes. The stock farmer will keep a record of disease or signs of disease and the use of drugs and submit a health report on delivery of animals to be slaughtered. By herd health programmes, carried out by the veterinary practitioner, optimum health, production and well-being should be achieved. A herd health programme includes objectives, material and methods, evaluation, analysis and advice. On the basis of the results of herd health programmes, the producer of animals intended for slaughter will be able to meet the requirements of the system of surveillance of the animal and meat production chain.
In preliminary studies, on adult filarial parasites, difference in the electrophoretic pattern of glucosephosphate isomerase (GPI) of B. malayi, B. pahangi and the rat filarial worm, B. booliati, was demonstrated. There also appears to be a difference in the GPI and lactate dehydrogenase isoenzyme patterns of B. malayi (subperiodic) from different animal hosts. These observations suggest that the zymogram technique may yet prove to be a sensitive taxonomic tool for use in the characterisation of filarial helminths. At present, the contention is that the subperiodic form of B. malayi exists as a zoonoses (possibly also with B. pahangi), which is drawn from findings backed by procedures that cannot easily differentiate between closely-related species and subspecies. Thus enzyme electrophoresis could complement the parasitological methods currently used, and contribute in enhancing the validity of this contention. More work, and on a larger scale to include the microfilariae and infective larvae, would be required.
The possibilities are stated of using the administrative and economic methods in the administration of the veterinary service. It is stressed that the two types of methods are applied in combination. Administrative methods are to be employed in the control of epizootics, including zoonoses, and in the veterinary and sanitary control, resp. surveillance and inspection. Both types of methods are equally referred to in the control of parasitic diseases with epizootic course of development as well as in the control of diseases caused by occasionally pathogenic organisms. The use of economic methods is prevailing in the control of noninfectious diseases, and in the administration of bioproduct and drug production.
Immunobiological action holds a firm position in veterinary legislation of the GDR with regard to the prevention and control of zoonoses, parasitoses, and other risk factors. Here are some of the conditions which have to be satisfied for systematic and purpose-oriented application of live vaccines: (a) Stringent procedures and rules for testing and acceptance of pharmaceutical preparations; (b) Availability of scientifically founded concepts of application which have to be submitted for translation from research to production and for acceptance and which require for use under practice conditions prior permission of veterinary authorities or other legal consent; (c) Knowledge of both prevalence and incidence of the epidemic diseases for which live vaccines are to be used in prophylaxis and after-care; (d) Verification of good success of live vaccines (decline and regression of diseases or reduction of economic loss) and identification of factors with detrimental impact upon effectiveness; (e) High organisational efficiency of public veterinary services and availability of comprehensive networks for diagnosis to ensure effectiveness and harmlessness of all strategical and tactical measures taken. In the GDR, the above demands are met. The epizootiological situation has clearly improved. Appropriate and meaningful use of live vaccines is not contradictory to culling concepts. Whenever the use of live vaccines appears to be impermissible for epizootiological and other reasons, the possible economic damage likely to result from non-use should be included in the discussion. The latter would be of particular importance in the context of industralised livestock farming with high concentration and specialisation.
The principal clinical syndromes caused by Yersinia (Y. pseudotuberculosis and Y. enterocolitica) are described. It is likely that they are zoonoses transmitted to man by ingestion. Fever, abdominal pain and diarrhea are the commonest symptoms, and patients are often operated upon for suspected appendicitis. The symptoms associated with these infections include arthralgia and erythema nodosum, particularly in adults. Most cases are benign, but some may be severe. Fortunately, however, many antibiotics are active against Yersinia. At present these diseases are uncommon in Switzerland but appear to be endemic in Scandinavia. Their relative incidence may increase if physicians become more aware of this possible etiology.
Human health, agriculture, including livestock, energy, education, wildlife, construction, forestry and trade sectors are inter-related and their co-ordination is an important pre-requisite for successful control of most communicable diseases including plague. Similar linkage between research, policy, training and extension activities in each sector are essential for any successful control strategy. Inadequate agricultural produce, inaccessibility of people to the available food and ignorance on proper preparation and usage of available food materials are responsible for malnutrition, and malnourished people are very vulnerable to disease. Irrigation schemes facilitate breeding of various disease vectors and transmission of some communicable diseases. Forests are ecologically favourable for some disease vectors and reservoirs for tsetse flies and rodents, while deforestation leads to soil erosion, lack of rainfall and consequently reduced productivity in agriculture which may result in poor nutrition of the population. Wildlife and livestock serve as reservoirs and/or carriers of various zoonoses including plague, trypanosomiasis and rabies. Lack of proper co-ordination of these sectors in communicable disease control programmes can result in serious and undesirable consequences. Indiscriminate killing of rodents in order to minimize food damage by these vermin forces their flea ectoparasites to seek alternative hosts, including man, a development which may result in transmission of plague from rodents to man. Similarly, avoidance of proper quarantine during plague epidemics, an undertaking which is usually aimed at maintaining economic and social links with places outside the affected focus, can result in the disease becoming widespread and consequently make any control strategies more difficult and expensive.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
In 1990 in Germany for the first time more than 100,000 cases of enteric infections (mostly salmonella enteritidis) were registered. The incidence is still increasing. As only one of ten cases is reported the yearly overall loss to general economy is estimated up to DM 600,000,000. Many hypotheses on causes were suggested but none could be verified (e.g. mass-breeding of animals, modernistic habits of eating and drinking, introduction of microwave-cooking, deterioration of hygiene in kitchens, insufficient cooling of food). This paper reports on the result of retrospective interviews with regard to food- and kitchen-hygiene of persons suffering from salmonellosis during an epidemy in Lübeck in autumn 1990. As no systematic violations of rules of hygiene could be detected we concluded that in future prevention and research should again be concentrated especially on the control of animal feed imports, poultry breeding, cooling and technical processing of eggs and garbage-sanitation. In Sweden consistent elimination of infected poultry stock showed effect. In the Federal Republic of Germany more drastic steps in regard of planed EC-Guidelines on the control of zoonoses are demanded.
A preliminary environmental classification of housing-related diseases in developing countries is presented. This groups these diseases into six categories: those related to defects in (1) buildings and the peridomestic environment, (2) water supply, (3) sanitation, (4) refuse storage and collection and (5) food storage and preparation; and (6) industry-related diseases resulting from housing location (close to polluting industries or on contaminated land) and from the use of the home as a workplace. Each category has three subcategories: communicable diseases (including zoonoses), non-communicable diseases, and mental illnesses and psychosocial disorders.
The high density of populations and insufficient sanitary conditions increases the risk to acquire viral diseases in tropical areas. This holds true for ubiquitous as well as for regional viral infections. Hepatitis and AIDS are found worldwide, but play a dominant role in tropical areas. Classical tropical viral infections are zoonoses. They are primarily infections of nonhuman vertebrates (e.g. rodents) and of arthropod vectors and can be transmitted to man. According to the clinical outcome these viral infections can be divided into three groups: influenza-like disease with arthralgia, encephalitis and hemorrhagic fevers. The majority of infections belong to the first group, followed by encephalitis cases. Viral hemorrhagic fevers are rare in visitors of tropical areas. Antibody detection is the method of choice in the diagnosis of tropical viral infections. In special situations (e.g. Lassa fever) the direct detection of the virus by PCR can be helpful. Tests for the detection of arboviruses, filoviruses and arenaviruses are only performed at a few centers worldwide.