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PubMed2004

Specific reading disability (dyslexia): what have we learned in the past four decades?

We summarize some of the most important findings from research evaluating the hypothesized causes of specific reading disability ('dyslexia') over the past four decades. After outlining components of reading ability, we discuss manifest causes of reading difficulties, in terms of deficiencies in component reading skills that might lead to such difficulties. The evidence suggests that inadequate facility in word identification due, in most cases, to more basic deficits in alphabetic coding is the basic cause of difficulties in learning to read. We next discuss hypothesized deficiencies in reading-related cognitive abilities as underlying causes of deficiencies in component reading skills. The evidence in these areas suggests that, in most cases, phonological skills deficiencies associated with phonological coding deficits are the probable causes of the disorder rather than visual, semantic, or syntactic deficits, although reading difficulties in some children may be associated with general language deficits. Hypothesized deficits in general learning abilities (e.g., attention, association learning, cross-modal transfer etc.) and low-level sensory deficits have weak validity as causal factors in specific reading disability. These inferences are, by and large, supported by research evaluating the biological foundations of dyslexia. Finally, evidence is presented in support of the idea that many poor readers are impaired because of inadequate instruction or other experiential factors. This does not mean that biological factors are not relevant, because the brain and environment interact to produce the neural networks that support reading acquisition. We conclude with a discussion of the clinical implications of the research findings, focusing on the need for enhanced instruction.

Brain↗
PubMed1996

Selection of library services by post-registration nursing, midwifery and health visiting students.

This paper describes a small-scale survey undertaken with 300 nurses, midwives and health visitors on post-registration courses and registered for the ENB Higher Award. The aim was threefold: first to examine reasons for electing to use particular libraries; second, the relationship between workplace, home, teaching site and choice of library services; and third, the use of library enquiry services. There was a 56% response rate to the postal questionnaire and results indicated that the key factor in selecting a library was availability of resources rather than convenience to home or workplace. The third largest group of respondents worked in community organizations with little or no on-site access to resources and were dependent on access to other libraries. Most who used the library for literature searching needed to seek help in spite of preliminary user education sessions. Similar levels of assistance were needed to locate journals and use the computerized book catalogue. The paper recommends explicit information on strategic entry points, necessity of a broad central collection, integration of information retrieval into post-registration courses, use of self-study packs, better trust/university liaison and recognition of the need for resource transfer from teaching to learning.

Allied Health Personnel↗
PubMed2001

[Resource oriented interventions in pregnancy].

Premature labour and premature birth keep on being an unsolved problem in spite of diverse medical measures in the obstetrics. The system of risk catalogues did not meet the expectations and can lead even for the disconcertion from pregnant women. If one places the risks performed in the German mother passport as a basis, approximately 50% of all pregnant women would be risk cases. In current publications stress finds strong attention as a psychophysiological declaration model of premature birth. Own results refer to psychosomatic connections at premature birth. Social relief and here particularly the one through the babies father seems to be a preventive factor with regard to some premature birth. Under a resource-oriented visual angle the salutogenetic-model of Antonovsky is employed for care concepts of the primary and second prevention in the pregnancy as a basis. Specific target group offers for pregnant woman that focus also on the stabilization of their competence feeling, particularly next to knowledge transfer, relaxation training and learning of coping strategies, the activation of social nets and, where appropriate, early inclusion of the partner and offer of communication training for pregnant couples are described as a good complement to traditional prenatal care. A bearing away of the risk-model opens the resources-model for prenatal care new ways and is a challenge also for science.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Context is Key: an interactive experiential and content frame game.

Most games used for teaching focus on either content transfer or an experiential learning experience. 'Context is Key' is a combination of both as the learners actively interact experientially with the content being taught, with fellow learners and with the facilitator(s). Using this interactive game after a didactic portion of teaching can reinforce the knowledge in ways that require synthesis of the knowledge for application and encourage group discussion and the sharing of knowledge that participants possess. This game was originally created to highlight the complexities of the differential diagnosis of bipolar disorder in adolescents. By playing the game, students can understand why psychiatric symptoms on their own are not as valuable as placing them within the context of symptom clusters, how it takes time to make an accurate diagnosis for complex presentations of symptoms, how to sort symptoms that have similar presentations and why 'Context is Key!'

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Is the early visual system optimised to be energy efficient?

This paper demonstrates that a representation which balances natural image encoding with metabolic energy efficiency shows many similarities to the neural organisation observed in the early visual system. A simple linear model was constructed that learned receptive fields by optimally balancing information coding with metabolic expense for an entire visual field in a 2-stage visual system. The input to the model consists of a space variant retinal array of photoreceptors. Natural images were then encoded through a bottleneck such as the retinal ganglion cells that form the optic nerve. The natural images represented by the activity of retinal ganglion cells were then encoded by many more 'cortical' cells in a divergent representation. Qualitatively, the system learnt by optimising information coding and energy expenditure and matched (1) the centre surround organisation of retinal ganglion cells; (2) the Gabor-like organisation of cortical simple cells; (3) higher densities of receptive fields in the fovea decreasing in the periphery; (4) smaller receptive fields in the fovea increasing in size in the periphery; (5) spacing ratios of retinal cells; and (6) aspect ratios of cortical receptive fields. Quantitatively, however, there are small but significant discrepancies between density slopes which may be accounted for by taking optic blur and fixation induced image statistics into account. In addition, the model cortical receptive fields are more broadly tuned than biological cortical neurons; this may be accounted for by the computational limitation of modelling a relatively low number of neurons. This paper shows that retinal receptive field properties can be understood in terms of balancing coding with synaptic energy expenditure and cortical receptive fields with firing rate energy expenditure, and provides a sound biological explanation of why 'sparse' distributions are beneficial.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Cholesteryl ester efflux from extracellular and cellular elements of the arterial wall. Model systems in culture with cholesteryl linoleyl ether.

Cholesteryl ester (CE) accretion in human atheroma is a slow process during which lipoproteins infiltrate the arterial extracellular space and then gain entry into the cellular components. The present aim was to simulate this process in model systems in culture to learn whether cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) may promote CE efflux at different stages of atheroma formation. To simulate CE efflux from arterial interstitium, cationized LDL labeled with 3H-cholesteryl linoleyl ether (3H-CLE) was added to fixed aortic smooth muscle cells (SMC) or to extracellular matrix. To study efflux of 3H-CLE taken up by cells via receptor-mediated endocytosis of LDL, the SMC cultures were fixed and permeabilized prior to the determination of CE efflux. The cellular model included macrophages, which had ingested acetylated LDL labeled with 3H-CLE. Efflux of 3H-CLE and 14C-CE was studied during postincubation of the labeled cultures with human lipoprotein deficient serum (LPDS) or partially purified CETP. As controls, we used SMC cultures incubated with albumin. In all systems, a 3- to 12-fold increase of 3H-CLE or 14C-CE efflux was found in the postincubation medium containing human LPDS or partially purified CETP when compared to controls. Permeabilization of the cells with saponin enhanced cellular 3H-CLE and 14C-CE efflux in the presence of human LPDS. The findings indicate that CETP may promote CE efflux from aortic interstitium or disintegrating cells. We propose that CETP may play an important role in aortic CE homeostasis under physiological and pathological conditions.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Neural mechanisms of memory retrieval: role of the prefrontal cortex.

In the primate brain, long-term memory is stored in the neocortical association area which is also engaged in sensory perception. The coded representation of memory is retrieved via interactions of hierarchically different cortical areas along bottom-up and top-down anatomical connections. The functional significance of the fronto-cortical top-down neuronal projections has been relevantly assessed in a new experimental paradigm using posterior-split-brain monkeys. When the splenium of the corpus callosum and the anterior commissure were selectively split, the bottom-up visual signal originating from the unilateral striate cortex could not reach the contralateral visual cortical areas. In this preparation, long-term memory acquired through visual stimulus-stimulus association learning was prevented from transferring across hemispheres. Nonetheless, following the presentation of a visual cue to one hemisphere, the prefrontal cortex could instruct the contralateral hemisphere to retrieve the correct stimulus specified by the cue. These results support the hypothesis that the prefrontal cortex can regulate memory recall in the absence of bottom-up sensory input. In humans, functional neuroimaging studies have revealed activation of a distributed neural network, including the prefrontal cortex, during memory retrieval tasks. Thus, the prefrontal cortex is consistently involved in retrieval of long-term memory in primates.

Animals↗
PubMed1979

Matching-to-sample and oddity-from-sample in goldfish.

Acquisition of three-alternative simultaneous matching-to-sample and oddity-from-sample was investigated. Five goldfish were trained on matching and five on oddity for a minimum of 70 days. Subsequently, six of the fish were trained for 70 days on the other task. Acquisition was similar for oddity and matching. Correct responding started at about chance level and slowly increased to about 75%, with some animals performing at levels of over 85%. Acquisition of oddity following matching and matching following oddity began below chance. Maximal level of performance on second-task oddity was comparable to that on first-task matching. By contrast, the maximal levels of performance when matching was the second task were not as high as that of the same subjects at the end of first-task oddity. All fish exhibited strong color preferences during matching acquisition but not during oddity acquisition. The data demonstrated that goldfish can acquire a discrimination in which the stimulus associated with reinforcement depends on the identity of a second stimulus.

Animals↗
PubMed1982

Acquisition and maintenance of autoshaped key pecking as a function of food stimulus and key stimulus similarity.

The results of a number of recent studies suggest that acquisitions of autoshaped key pecking in pigeons is affected by the similarity of the grain-hopper stimulus and response-key stimulus. In Experiment 1 this hypothesis was tested by training independent groups of pigeons to key peck under six different hopper-stimulus and key-stimulus similarity conditions, and three procedures containing either immediate reinforcement, variable delay of reinforcement, or omission of reinforcement for key pecking. Number of trials to acquisition was found to be related to the similarity variable. Maintained responding was affected by the response-reinforcer contingency. This effect was found both within and between subjects. Under two of the contingencies (automaintenance and omission), maintained responding continued to be affected by the similarity of the hopper stimulus and key stimulus. In Experiment 2 pigeons were given omission training with a hopper light on or off. Both acquisition and maintenance of key pecking were facilitated by the presence of the hopper light. The present findings suggest that much of the responding reported in various automatic shaping and training procedures may reflect the effects of key stimulus/food stimulus similarity.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

Binocular depth perception in the pigeon.

By means of a discrete-trial simultaneous discrimination procedure, pigeons were trained to respond differentially to visual arrays that were identical except that one of them contained a circle displaced in depth when viewed stereoscopically. Performance was severely disrupted when one eye was occluded. The monocular deficit was peculiar to the depth task, inasmuch as no such decrement was seen on a pattern discrimination. The results imply that presence of the displaced circle was discriminated on the basis of a binocular cue. It was also found that pigeons could discriminate the direction of the displacement. Discrimination of depth was independent of the global form and still occurred when elements of the array were randomly displaced in depth. Performance was not disrupted when the absolute convergence angle of the depth stimulus was changed. The cue that consistently accounted for the behavior seen was the detection of the relative angles of convergence--that is, the retinal disparity of the two planes in depth. Thus, despite the lateral position of the eyes of the pigeon, a small binocular field mediates the binocular discrimination of near objects in depth.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Learning an imposed timing in a sequential arm movement.

The possibility of learning an imposed timing in a sequential arm movement was investigated as such observations could have important implications for learning in sport. The experimental task was performed by 26 women and 19 men on a vertical digitizer and required a movement made of four segments, different in both length and direction. To impose a timing very different from a spontaneous one, the spontaneous temporal organization on this task had first to be characterized. Then, during the learning, visual and auditory information about the imposed timing was given to subjects on each trial. Analysis showed that subjects accurately learned the imposed timing; moreover, the learning was a discontinuous process. Finally, it was obvious that the learned timing could be transferred to a reversed spatial pattern.

Adult↗