The effect of modeling and disclosure of experimenter's intent on drinking rate of college students.
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Adult↗
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Effects of peer majority on drinking rate.
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Adult↗
Peer influence in adolescent cigarette smoking.
A structural model relating actual and perceived peer smoking to perceived peer pressure and to adolescent cigarette smoking was developed and replicated in two independent subsamples of the data. Data was gathered from 2334 suburban adolescents in grades 8 and 11 in a large metropolitan area. Four dimensions of peer pressure were discovered and were found to relate differentially to adolescent smoking. The major findings were that pathways representing modeling and normative pressure to smoke had roughly equal impact on adolescent smoking. Direct pressure to smoke cigarettes did not have a significant path to adolescent smoking. Adolescents reported low levels of both normative and direct pressure to smoke cigarettes. Smoking adolescents appear to see the peer group, not as encouraging them to smoke, but as not providing any discouragement for smoking. Finally, adolescents who were experimenting with smoking or were smokers overestimated the amount of smoking by their best friends.
Adolescent↗
Factors promoting cigarette smoking among black youth: a causal modeling approach.
A longitudinal model of Black adolescent smoking was tested using 223 seventh-grade students attending public schools in northern New Jersey. Interpersonal and intrapersonal factors were hypothesized to have an impact on Black seventh graders' decision to smoke. After conducting an exploratory Principal Factor Analysis (PFA) using a varimax rotation with the Time 1 data, a structural equation model was developed and refined through successive iterations. The final model revealed friends' smoking to be the most significant predictor of Black adolescent smoking at Time 1, but perceived smoking norms and intrapersonal factors such as decision making, self-efficacy, and self-esteem at home and at school exerted an important influence on smoking at Time 2. These results suggest that social influence factors may be important early in the smoking initiation process, but factors such as perceived smoking norms and intrapersonal factors may play an important role in maintaining the smoking habit in Black adolescents.
Adolescent↗
The effectiveness of same-sex versus opposite-sex role models in advertisements to reduce alcohol consumption in teenagers.
The differential effectiveness of same- versus opposite-sex role models in persuading teenagers to reduce alcohol consumption was investigated. Based on an actual set of commercials, four 1-min videos were constructed, in which either boys or girls discuss how alcohol adversely affects either boys or girls. These were shown to either teenage boys or girls, resulting in a 2(Sex of Source) x 2(Sex of Subjects [Ss]) factorial design. Ss rated the credibility of the source, the persuasibility of the message, said how much and how often they drank currently, and whether they intended to decrease their future alcohol consumption. Three studies were conducted, in a coeducational (N = 95), boys' (N = 98), and girls' (N = 102) school, respectively. The overall pattern in the data showed that as predicted, same-sex role models were more effective, and that moderate drinkers were more influenced than heavy drinkers; both findings having implications for teenage health education campaigns.
Adolescent↗
Social influences on young adults' alcohol consumption: norms, modeling, pressure, socializing, and conformity.
This study aims to assess which types of social influence are correlated with young people's (15-24 years) heavy drinking (six or more glasses) in public drinking places during the weekend. Drinking in public drinking places can be defined as a "timeout" situation. Therefore we assumed that situational factors (e.g., importance of socializing and direct pressures on drinking) would contribute more to the explained variance than variables indicating cognitive social influences (e.g., social norms and modeling). Stepwise regression analyses showed that in total 25% of the variance was explained by social norms of family and peers (15%), importance of socializing in drinking situations (7%), modeling (2%) and group size (1%). The results show that both a cognitive factor and a situational factor appear to be most strongly correlated with young people's frequency of heavy drinking in public drinking places. Within the category of situational influences those variables indicating direct social pressures were only weakly related or not significant. Studies focusing on measuring the impact of social influences may profit from including the concept of the importance of socializing and conformity as an additional factor.
Adolescent↗
Precursors to heroin: a pilot study of young heroin addicts and their nonaddicted friends.
To determine whether differences in life styles and patterns of drug use may help to account for willingness to try heroin and/or likelihood of becoming addicted, personal history interviews were conducted with 15 young heroin addict, 15 experimenters who used the drug but did not become addicts, and 15 nonusers who never tried heroin altough they wre exposed to it. The findings suggest that willingness to try heroin can be better understood within the context of a broader involvement in a deviant way of life. Unlike their nonuser peers, addict and experimenter subjects tended to have identified with deviant rather than conventional role models. Prior to first heroin use, most of them were heavily involved in multiple drug use and other illegal activities. Addicts and experimenters knew that one does not become addicted after trying heroin only once, and many believed they had enough "will power" to avoid a heroin habit.
Adolescent↗
Facial mimicry and intellectual function in children of different socioeconomic status.
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Child↗
Role relations between children who are mentally retarded and their older siblings: observations in three in-home contexts.
Older nonhandicapped siblings and same-sex younger mentally retarded siblings (n = 16 sibling pairs) were observed in their homes during toy play, snack, and television-viewing, as were an equal number of comparison sibling pairs, matched for age, gender, and family characteristics. Role relationships between mentally retarded children and older siblings were asymmetrical, with older siblings assuming frequent teacher, manager, and helper roles. Older sisters, in particular, participated in frequent teaching. Amount of interaction between siblings was directly related to the contexts in which they were observed. Nonhandicapped siblings engaged each other more as playmates. Interactional correlates of language and adaptive competencies of the mentally retarded children are presented, as are correlations between the age of the siblings and the roles they assume with each other.
Adaptation, Psychological↗
Comparison of simulation training on self and using a doll for teaching generalized menstrual care to women with severe mental retardation.
This study examined the effects of two simulation methods of general case instruction in teaching generalized menstrual care; long-term maintenance was assessed up to 18 months. Within a split multiple-baseline design across subjects, three middle-school students and one adult woman with severe or profound mental retardation initially were assigned either to on-self instruction or to instruction using a doll. The two learners receiving doll training also participated in instruction on self. A modified forward chaining procedure with identical task analysis steps was used with each method. The range of positive and negative training examples used also was identical for the two techniques except that doll-size underwear and sanitary pads were used for doll training. Participants were taught (by demonstrating on themselves or by manipulating the doll) to change stained underwear and stained pads and not to change underwear or to obtain a pad in the absence of a stain. The dependent variables consisted of simulation and in vivo (natural menses) assessment probes and reflected the percentage of trials in which all task analysis steps were performed correctly. Correct performance on critical menstrual-care steps alone also was assessed. Results indicated limited generalization after training using a doll. While all four learners demonstrated high levels of generalized responding following on-self instruction, the effect decreased over time for two participants. Implications for defining the dependent variable, selecting teaching examples, and enhancing maintenance are discussed.
Adolescent↗
A comparison of the Task Demonstration Model and the Standard Prompting Hierarchy in teaching word identification to persons with moderate retardation.
Six persons with moderate mental retardation were taught to identify three words by each of two different procedures. One, the Task Demonstration Model, was a fading procedure which relied on presenting many examples of both the correct and incorrect words while systematically increasing their similarity. The other, the Standard Prompting Hierarchy, is one of the most common procedures for teaching persons with mental retardation, and relied on a least-to-most intrusive prompting hierarchy. Data were presented in three phases and show that the Task Demonstration Model produced fewer errors in (a) acquisition (4% to 14%), (b) generalization (9% to 14%), and (c) maintenance (8% to 14%). Results were discussed in terms of the fading procedure and how the Task Demonstration Model provides a simple means for teachers to improve their students' responding in acquisition, generalization, and maintenance.
Adolescent↗
Effects of picture referencing on PVC chair, love seat, and settee assemblies by students with mental retardation.
This study examined the effects of two indirect corrective feedback procedures on the assembly skills of five secondary students with moderate mental retardation. Picture and video referencing conditions, during which the experimenters pointed to a picture or video screen following a performance error and requested the student do the step again, were more effective than assembly photographs, sequenced pictures, sequenced pictures and modeling, and video modeling conditions. Picture referencing enabled each participant to independently assemble a 13-step, 31-piece chair that required assembly of 45 loose, assembled, or loose and assembled parts. Following the introduction of picture referencing across two more complex tasks, four students independently completed more complex love seat and settee assemblies in fewer trials than required during their initial chair assembly. This article discusses the self-correction and self-management implications.
Adolescent↗
Gesture imitation with lower limbs following left hemisphere stroke.
Ideomotor apraxia (IMA) of lower limbs has rarely been investigated systematically. This is the aim of the current study. Thirty-five patients with a unilateral stroke in the left hemisphere were tested within 30 days from onset with an upper limb IMA test and with a newly devised test assessing leg IMA. Seventeen patients presented with arm apraxia, six of them also showed severe leg apraxia. Results suggest that IMA of lower limbs emerges in association with severe arm IMA in patients with large lesions, and is a sign of general severity of the patient's conditions.
Adult↗
Intentional action arises from early reciprocal exchanges.
Intentionality is defined as the cognitive ability to represent goals beyond the here and now of perception. First signs of intentionality appear by the second month after birth. A major mechanism responsible for such development might be the unique reciprocal and intentional ways humans communicate with each other, particularly their young progenies. I argue that starting in the second month, reciprocal exchanges, affective mirroring, and mutual imitations with others provide infants with the unique opportunity to differentiate as well as to compare and conjugate first (self) and third (others') person perspectives. This ability is a prerequisite not only for referential communication but also of intentionality. It corresponds to the emergence of a new contemplative and "meta" stance toward the world. An argument is made that the developmental origins of this stance are primarily social, not to be found in the individual infant interacting solely with physical objects.
Cognition↗
Infants' imitation of goal-directed actions: the role of movements and action effects.
This paper reviews studies on infants' imitation of goal-directed actions in the first two years of life. Special emphasis is given to the role of the two observable components of an action, that is, the movement and the action effects, on infants' replication of target actions. The reviewed studies provide evidence that infants benefit most from a full demonstration of both movements and effects. If movements are demonstrated in isolation, infants may encode this information, but they preferentially reproduce actions that lead to salient effects. If action effects are presented in isolation, infants younger than 19 months usually fail to emulate the unseen movements that would be necessary to produce these effects. Infants' ability to predict action effects or to infer unseen movements from incomplete demonstrations improves substantially at the end of the second year of life. It is concluded that the capability to learn relations between movements and action effects by observation, and the knowledge about movement-effect relations acquired so far, may be important factors underlying the developmental changes in infants' imitation of goal-directed actions.
Goals↗
Prototype perception and smoking: are negative or positive social images more important in adolescence?
It is suggested that a more profound understanding of cigarette smoking among adolescents should include the social images they have of smokers. The main goal of the present study was to investigate the role of smoker prototypes in adolescents' smoking status and to compare the role of negative and positive smoker images. Data were collected from high school students in two counties of the Southern Plain Region of Hungary (N=548; ages between 14 and 21 years). The self-administered questionnaires contained items on sociodemographics, smoking occurrence, and smoker prototypes. Factor analysis revealed three smoker prototypes: a negative prototype (e.g., dull, childish), a positive social appearance prototype (e.g., cool, popular), and a positive individual competence prototype (such as smart, independent) all with satisfactory reliability. Odds ratios suggest that the role of the negative prototypes for nonsmokers is greater than the role of positive prototypes for smokers. For boys, positive individual competence prototype also seems to be important. Health promotion programs should focus on fostering negative social images in prevention.
Adolescent↗
The eyes have it!: an fMRI investigation.
For the past several years it has been thought that cues, such as eye direction, can trigger reflexive shifts in attention because of their biological relevance and their specialized neural architecture. However, very recently, reported that other stimuli, such as arrows, trigger reflexive shifts in attention in a manner that is behaviourally identical to those triggered by eyes. Nevertheless these authors speculated that reflexive orienting to gaze direction may be subserved by a neural system-the superior temporal sulcus (STS)-that is specialized for processing eyes. The present study presents fMRI data that provide direct and compelling empirical support to this proposal. Subjects were presented with fixation stimuli that, based on instruction, could be perceived as eyes or as another type of directional cue. Both produced equivalent shifts in reflexive attention, replicating Ristic et al. However, the neural systems subserving the two forms of orienting were not equivalent-with the STS being engaged exceptionally when the fixation stimulus was perceived as eyes.
Adult↗
Pantomime and imitation of limb gestures in relation to the severity of Alzheimer's disease.
The present study was designed to investigate the relationship between performance of limb gestures and the severity of Alzheimer's disease (A.D.). Apraxia tends to occur at later stages of A.D., and the severity of apraxia has been shown to vary with the severity of A.D. dementia. Participants were 19 mild (including 9 with no cognitive impairment and 10 with mild impairment) and 18 moderate A.D. patients as well as 25 controls and they were asked to pantomime (P) or imitate (both concurrent (CI) and delayed (DI)), eight transitive gestures to assess praxis performance. Results indicated that the moderate patients performed less accurately than mild and non-impaired patients, and that across all groups, the imitation conditions were performed less accurately than pantomime, relative to controls. Correlational analyses revealed that MMSE scores were correlated with all three performance conditions suggesting that impaired praxis performance may relate to more global impairment. Finally, a frequency analysis was conducted to examine whether A.D. patients showed patterns of apraxia as described in Roy's model (1996). Results indicated that A.D. patients showed greatest impairment on pattern 7 (deficits in P, DI, and CI), reflecting late-stage gesture production, with a greater frequency of moderate patients exhibiting each apraxic pattern.
Aged↗