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PubMed1986

Plasma lipoprotein profile in relation to sex hormones in premenarcheal athletes.

Physical activity of an endurance nature is supposed to affect the lipoprotein profile in adults as well as in children. When examining this profile in premenarcheal athletes, regard has to be paid to an interfering effect of the rising sex hormone levels due to puberty. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the plasma lipoprotein levels of premenarcheal athletes in relation to their sex hormone profile. Thirty-six elite gymnasts, 21 recreational gymnasts, 27 girl swimmers, and 25 very little active control girls participated. Their age was about 12 years. The sex hormone profiles of all groups were similar. The swimmers had the lowest level of TC, LDL-C, and TG (P less than or equal to 0.05), and apo A-I was elevated in this group as compared with the others (P less than or equal to 0.05). HDL-C was highest in the recreational gymnasts (P less than or equal to 0.05). The elite group and the control group had similar lipoprotein profiles. After adjustment for T and E-2, no change in variance of the lipoproteins was found. A low correlation existed between apo A-I, E-2, and T (P less than or equal to 0.05). Thus, in this pediatric population, the sex hormones did not play a significant role relative to the levels of plasma lipids or apo A-I. As the body composition correlated very weakly with TG, it is tentative to conclude that the variance found in the lipoprotein profile might be due to differences in physical activity. Moreover, genetic factors may have contributed to the variance.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

The effect of combined self- and expert-modelling on the performance of the double leg circle on the pommel horse.

In this study, we investigated whether video modelling can enhance gymnasts' performance of the circle on a pommel horse. The procedure associated expert-modelling with self-modelling and quantitative performance analysis. Sixteen gymnasts were randomly assigned to one of two groups: (1) a modelling group, which received expert- and self-modelling, and performance feedback, or (2) a control group, which received no feedback. After five sessions of training, an analysis of variance with repeated measures indicated that the gains in the back, entry, front, and exit phases of the circle were greater for the modelling group than for the control group. During the training sessions, the gymnasts in the modelling group improved their body segmental alignment during the back phase more quickly than during the other phases. As predicted, although both groups performed the same number of circles (300 in 5 days, with 10 sequences of 6 circles), the modelling group improved their body segmental alignment more than the control group. It thus appears that immediate video modelling can help to correct complex sports movements such as the circle performed on the pommel horse. However, its effectiveness seemed to be dependent on the complexity of the phase.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1998

Pre-flight characteristics of Hecht vaults.

This study reports the techniques used by gymnasts to perform the Hecht vault and compares them with techniques used for the handspring somersault vault (Takei and Kim, 1990). Our main aim was to establish how the pre-flight characteristics of the Hecht vault influence post-flight performance. Data were obtained on 27 elite gymnasts performing the Hecht vault at the 1993 Canadian National Championships using two-dimensional video analysis with the direct linear transformation (DLT) technique. The maximum height reached by the mass centre during post-flight was significantly correlated (P < 0.001) with the vertical velocity of the mass centre and the body angle at horse contact. The backwards rotation of the body was significantly correlated (P = 0.015) with the shoulder angle at horse contact. The competition score was significantly correlated (P = 0.043) with the body angle at horse contact and was also related to the maximum height of the mass centre during post-flight. For the Hecht vault, the gymnasts had longer, lower and faster pre-flights with slower rotation at horse contact compared with the handspring somersault vaults.

Gymnastics↗
PubMed2003

The double back salto dismount from the parallel bars.

The purpose of this study was to identify those mechanical determinants or their trends that distinguished a gymnast's best performance of the double back salto dismount on parallel bars from those judged to be inferior. Dismounts, in the tucked position, by nine Canadian gymnasts were analysed. Unique to this study was the inclusive analysis of multiple performances of the same skill by these athletes. It was felt that within-subject comparisons would reveal the kinematic variables on which the gymnast may focus in order to achieve their best performances. A non-parametric median sign test was used to compare mechanical variables, within subjects, between the dismount judged the best and those dismounts awarded a lower score. Three judges judged each dismount. In comparison to poorer performances of the dismount, statistical analyses revealed that athlete's best performances were characterised by (1) a higher release point, more vertical velocity yet with less angular momentum at take-off, (2) greater height, with a tighter and earlier tuck position during the flight phase, and (3) a greater range of motion and a more compact squat position at landing (all p's < .06).

Biomechanical Phenomena↗
PubMed2002

A three-dimensional shank-foot model to determine the foot motion during landings.

PURPOSE: The purposes of this study were a) to develop a model of the foot capable of describing the foot motion during dynamic movements and b) to study the influence of different mats on foot motion during landing in gymnastics. METHODS: Six female gymnasts (height: 1.63 +/- 0.04 m, weight: 58.21 +/- 3.46 kg) participated in this study. All six gymnasts carried out barefoot landings, falling from 80 and 115 cm onto three mats each with a different stiffness (hard, medium, and soft). Three synchronized digital high-speed video cameras (250 Hz) captured the motion of the left shank and foot. At the same time, the reaction forces between mat and foot at the forefoot and rearfoot were measured by two instrumented insoles (Paromed, 1000 Hz). The kinematics of the tibiotalar, talonavicular, and calcaneocuboid joints were examined. The lower leg and the foot were modeled by means of a multi-body system, comprising seven rigid bodies. For each joint, two joint coordinate systems attached on each of the connected segments were defined. RESULTS: The mat stiffness did not show any influence on the maximal reaction forces or on the kinematics of the tibiotalar joint. For the soft mat, higher maximal eversion angles at the talonavicular and the calcaneocuboid joints were measured. CONCLUSIONS: The relative motion between forefoot and rearfoot was influenced by changing mat stiffness. Therefore, the construction of the mat influenced the motion of the foot. The observation of only the tibiotalar joint is not enough when studying the influence of different mats on foot motion. The functional benefit of the mechanical advantages of a soft mat (higher energy absorption) includes a decrease in stability. The surface of the landing mat should, therefore, be reinforced by a stabilizing mechanism.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Use of different imagery perspectives on the learning and performance of different motor skills.

Two experiments are reported which examine the relative efficacy of different imagery perspectives on a slalom type and a gymnastic type task. Twenty-four able-bodies sport, health and physical education students were allocated to either an internal visual imagery group or an external visual imagery group. In both experiments subjects watched video-recordings of someone completing the tasks, then performed five blocks of three trials with feedback after each block, and internal/external visual imagery before each trial. A transfer/retention trial was performed one week later. The tasks were a wheelchair slalom task and a pseudogymnastics routine performed using rhythmic gymnastics clubs to show static positions. The slalom task results suggested that in the retention test, the external visual imagery group focused on the speed of performance, whilst the internal visual imagery group focused on the accuracy of performance. These findings were interpreted as suggesting that internal visual imagery was more effective for the planning of action in response to changes in a visual field. However, in the gymnastics task, contrary to previous suggestions, external visual imagery was found to be more effective than internal visual imagery for both learning and subsequent retention. The roles of internal and external visual imagery are discussed in terms of task characteristics and the observational learning literature.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1994

Isokinetic profile of dorsiflexors and plantar flexors of the ankle--a comparative study of élite versus untrained subjects.

A comparative study was made of the isokinetic characteristics of the ankle (plantar-flexion and dorsiflexion) in young men. Six cyclists, seven gymnasts, 10 soccer players and 25 non-athletic young men were tested on the Cybex II+ dynamometer. Peak torque, torque acceleration energy (TAE), total work and average power were measured. Cyclists had slightly higher (5%) mean plantar flexion than the others, but this was not significant. The situation was reversed for dorsiflexion. Moreover, the average dorsiflexion per unit of plantar flexion was significantly higher in the gymnasts than it was in the cyclists for both torque and work. This suggests that at a specific level of plantar flexion, the gymnasts had stronger dorsiflexion compared with the cyclists and that in sports involving jumping and running, increased attention should be given to strengthening the antagonist muscle groups (dorsiflexors) in order to achieve greater agonist-to-antagonist muscle balance thus preventing injury. The non-athletic subjects had substantially lower endurance capability in both flexors as measured by the endurance ratio. This implies that identifiable specialization in particular muscles results from training or participating in specialized sports.

Acceleration↗
PubMed1995

Health promotion and exercise training.

Health is determined not only by the absence of disease, but also by an individual's resistance to pathogenic factors. In turn, resistance depends on the effectiveness of specific homeostatic regulation and the mechanism of general adaptation. Through the change in adaptivity, health may be increased or reduced. While it is difficult to predict which specific homeostatic mechanism will be necessary in various stages of life in the individual, it is more reliable to try to improve health, thereby increasing the effectiveness of the mechanism of general adaptation. Physical training results in a variety of changes in individuals. There are several changes which are essential both for increased exercise performance and for increasing adaptivity, by favouring the effectiveness of the mechanism of general adaptation. These changes: improve central nervous regulation and central nervous system functions; increase endocrine system capacity; increase energy potential; improve the capacity of the oxygen transport system; improve oxidation processes; increase metabolic and functional economy; increase functional stability; and increase the number of Na+,K+ -pumps. The influence of these changes on adaptivity is accomplished by the influence of exercise training on immunoactivities, and by the antisclerotic effect of training. The latter may be considered to be metabolic (actualised through the training effect on lipoprotein metabolism and aging-related calcium distribution) or mechanical (protection of tissues from sclerotic changes by their activities) effects. The training effects are specifically dependent upon performed exercises. Endurance exercise is considered to be the most important and widely recommended form of exercise for health improvement. Most of the training benefits (listed above) for increased adaptivity are induced by aerobic endurance training. Gymnastic exercises are indispensable in regard to mechanical antisclerotic effect. They are also essential influences on the central nervous system. Aerobic dance or aerobic rhythmic gymnastics are ways by which the positive effects of endurance and gymnastic exercise can be combined.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed1998

Sports members' participation in assessment of incidence rate of injuries in five sports from records of hospital-based clinical treatment.

This study is about the incidence rate of sports injuries in five different types of sports, gymnastics, soccer, volleyball, hockey, and basketball, for which 5,154 patients were admitted to the Emergency Unit of the Groningen University Hospital during the period 1990 through 1994. Incidence rate had been computed by membership participation. Basketball had the highest incidence rate (231 injured persons per 10,000 participants), followed by hockey (158 injured persons per 10,000 participants). The highest mean Injury Severity Score, 2.39, was found for gymnastics which had the lowest incidence rate (7 injured persons per 10,000 participants). Gymnastics had the highest percentage (12%) clinically treated patients, whereas basketball had the smallest percentage (2%) of clinically treated patients. The most frequent type of injury was distorsion, except for hockey, in which contusion had the highest percentage of occurrence. For all five types of sports, the majority (about 90%) of the injuries were observed at either the lower or at the upper extremities.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1992

Trends in sports injuries, 1982-1988: an in-depth study on four types of sport.

In this study, we analyzed the records of both inpatients and outpatients which were treated for acute sports injuries in the Trauma Department of the University of Groningen (The Netherlands) during the years 1982 to 1988. We examined whether there was a trend in sports injuries in this time period. The study comprised four types of sports, i.e., soccer, volleyball, gymnastics, and martial arts. The absolutely highest rates of injuries across the seven years were found in soccer, followed by gymnastics, volleyball, and martial arts. Injuries sustained at participating in soccer, volleyball, and gymnastics involved for the major part the lower extremities, followed by injuries of the upper extremities, whereas the reverse pattern was observed for patients who participated in martial arts. For all four types of sport, the ankle and foot were the most frequently site of injury of the lower extremities. Sprains and strains were the major types of injury. Most injuries were seen at ages between 10 and 30 years. The ratio of male to female patients within age groups did not differ significantly across the seven years. We concluded that, except for martial arts, the increased participation in sports in the last decade was not accompanied with a change in the patterns of sports injuries by the patients' age, sex, and number and nature of the injury. This consistency in results can be used to guide the development of prevention programs aimed at a reduction of injuries in specific sports.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

[The rise and fall of Zander-Institutes around 1900 in The Netherlands].

Around 1860 the Swedish physician dr. Jonas Gustav V. Zander (1835-1920) set himself to devise different sorts of contraptions. He believed that people who needed medical gymnastics could be treated better and more efficiently with the help of machines. His mechanistic approach can be understood in the context of the upcoming industrialisation that rapidly got a hold on Europe in this period. After a very successful presentation at the World Exhibitions in Philadelphia (1876) and in Paris (1878), the Zander-method soon caught on in the medical world and many so-called Zander-Institutes (which are very similar to the fitness-centres these days) emerged in teh bigger cities of various European countries. In the nineties of the nineteenth century Zander-therapy became very popular in The Netherlands as well. In 1894 the first Zander-Institute opened its doors in Groningen. WIthin four years another eight Zander-Institutes would follow in the major cities throughout the nation. In these institutes physical education teachers, who engaged themselves in medical gymnastics, and physicians worked closely together. This was considered to be a good development, since the domain of medical gymnastics was a heavily contested area in the field of labour in the last quarter of the nineteenth century. Afer a short flourishing period almost all of the Zander-Institutes had great difficulty to survive in the first decade of the twentieth century. Both rise and fall of teh Zander-Institutes can be ascribed to a combination of factors of a scientific (with regard to the method), social (viz. legislation concerning the care of the crippled) and professional (with regard to the different strategies of the involved professions) nature. In this article these factors and teh relations between them will be described.

Academies and Institutes↗
PubMed1991

[Sports in ankylosing spondylitis].

As therapy of ankylosing spondylarthritis still remains empirical, gymnastics and sports are of particular importance within the treatment of this disease. They aim at the improvement or at least the preservation of mobility, force and endurance. By those means an eventual immobilisation of the axial skeleton or the peripheral joints should take place in a position as favourable to function as possible. Various joint mobilisation techniques as well as muscle stretching are used to improve mobility. The latter thus pointedly prevents muscular disbalances. Various training methods are able to improve muscular performance. Slow dynamic force training can be used in gymnastic lessons as well as in home programmes. Maximal and staying power can thus be increased. Aerobic muscular training favours general efficiency, has a positive influence on risk factors of cardiac and vascular diseases and improves thoracic excursion. Motivation of the patient is correlated with the diversion of exercise, therapies and sport activities. The suitability of these measures are to be judged by expected maximal strain, the control of motion pattern, the effect of external forces as well as by the hazard to fall. Each and every sport activity has to be accompanied by supportive gymnastics. The most important sport disciplines are evaluated.

Gymnastics↗
PubMed1990

Radiologic abnormalities of the thoraco-lumbar spine in athletes.

A radiologic study of the thoraco-lumbar spine was performed in 143 (117 male and 26 female) athletes (wrestlers, gymnasts, soccer players and tennis players), aged 14 to 25 years and 30 male non-athletes, aged 19 to 25 years. Film interpretation was made after mixing the films from all groups and without knowledge of the individual's identity. Various types of radiologic abnormalities occurred in both athletes and non-athletes but were more common among athletes, especially male gymnasts and wrestlers. Abnormalities of the vertebral ring apophysis occurred exclusively in athletes. Combinations of different types of abnormalities were most common in male gymnasts and wrestlers.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1979

Forces exerted during exercises on the uneven bars.

The purposes of this study were (1) to develop a technique to measure the force exerted on uneven bars during a gymnast's performance, and (2) to determine the magnitudes of the maximum forces exerted on the bars during normal use. Strain gages, a UV recorder, and motion-picture cameras were used to record the forces exerted against the bars and the motions with which they were associated. Three college gymnasts were used as subjects. Each performed several repetitions of an exercise sequence judged to result in the maximum loading of the bars she might produce under normal conditions. The maximum forces recorded were 3500 N (low bar) and 2140 N (high bar). These values were recorded during a sharp impact between the subject's thighs and the bar during the passage of the subject beneath the bar in a giant swing, respectively. Making due allowance for possible measurement error and for the estimated effects of the bars being used by gymnasts of greater mass than those in this study, it was concluded that bars should be designed to withstand repeated loads of at least 4205 N.

Adult↗
PubMed1993

Body composition analysis of female adolescent athletes: comparing six regression equations.

This study investigated whether meaningful differences occurred when percentage body fat (%BF) values were estimated for female adolescent athletes using six different regression equations found in the two of which were age-adjusted. Skinfold thickness (SF) and bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) measurements were taken prior to training and > or = 2 h postprandial on 29 gymnasts and 25 speed skaters who competed at a minimum of a provincial level. Mean ages were similar (14.3 +/- 1.6 yr, mean +/- SD, vs 14.3 +/- 1.5 yr); however, the speed skaters were taller (162.2 +/- 8.2 cm vs 154.0 +/- 5.0 cm, P < 0.001) and heavier (58.5 +/- 9.5 kg vs 46.0 +/- 7.9 kg, P < 0.001). Analysis of variance of %BF revealed a significant effect of sport (F(1,52) = 39.3, P < 0.001), with gymnasts having lower values. There was also a significant effect of regression equation (F(5,260) = 147.8, P < 0.001), and post-hoc comparisons revealed significant differences between almost all equations. Calculated %BF values ranged from 21.0 +/- 7.7% to 28.1 +/- 3.9% for speed skaters and from 10.3 +/- 5.3% to 22.8 +/- 3.7% for gymnasts. For both sports, the age-adjusted equations for SF and BIA produced the lowest and the highest %BF values, respectively. Our results indicate the need for caution when using field techniques to estimate %BF of female adolescent athletes. We suggest that an appropriate technique and regression equation for use with this group is the Jackson and Pollock quadratic equation for skinfolds, using Lohman's age-adjusted specific constants to correct for lower density of fat-free mass in youths.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1995

The influence of hand guards on forces and muscle activity during giant swings on the high bar.

To investigate the influence of hand guards on the loads experienced by gymnasts during giant swings on the high bar, forces applied to the bar by each hand and muscle activity of the extrinsic finger flexor and wrist extensor muscle groups were measured in 10 male gymnasts as they completed a minimum of three backward giant swings on the high bar. Measurements were made under four conditions of performance: bare hands, with webbing loops, with doweled hand guards (DHG), and a wind-up swing using DHG. Peak reaction forces at the hands were of the order of 2.2 times body weight (BW) on each hand, and were significantly (P < 0.05) lower when swinging bare-handed, compared with the other three conditions. By contrast, the integrated electromyograms showed that both wrist flexor and extensor muscle activity was unchanged across conditions. These results indicate that the use of hand guards allows greater tensile forces to act across the wrist without a measureable increase in forearm muscle activity. Thus, it is possible that there is extra stress on the ligaments of the wrist or at the epiphyseal plates. In adolescent and preadolescent gymnasts, the additional tension on the distal epiphyses of the radius and ulna may have implications for bone growth.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Avulsion of the tibial tuberosity: muscles too strong for a growth plate.

PURPOSE: To ascertain whether there were significant knee extension strength differences between two adolescent male gymnasts (patient 1: age, 14.5 years; height, 159.3 cm; weight, 52.2 kg; patient 2: age, 15 years; height, 160.6 cm; weight, 54.8 kg) with avulsion of the tibial tuberosity associated with avulsion of the patellar tendon. CASE SUMMARY: Two adolescent male gymnasts underwent open reduction and internal fixation for avulsion of the tibial tuberosity associated with avulsion of the patellar tendon. Isometric extension strength of the contralateral uninjured knee and of the operated knee was significantly greater than for nonathletic adolescents of the same age (one-way analysis of variance [ANOVA], p = 0.001), and was at a higher part of normal strength than their gymnastic peers. DISCUSSION: A maximal contraction of the quadriceps is able to overcome the strength of the upper tibial epiphysis disrupting the extensor mechanism of the knee. RELEVANCE: Greater-than-usual strength, although normally of no undesired consequence, may play a role in avulsion injuries of major muscles.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

Family physicians and sports-injury care. Perceptions of coaches.

OBJECTIVE: To describe coaches' education in injury care and management and their club's access to medical care, to describe coaches' perceptions of how family physicians care for sports injuries, and to describe strategies used for overcoming perceived poor advice. DESIGN: A telephone survey using both closed and open-ended questions was conducted. Information was collected as background information to a larger study investigating coaches' decisions about allowing injured athletes to compete. SETTING: All 28 competitive gymnastics clubs in the province of Alberta. The clubs trained athletes for all competitive levels. PARTICIPANTS: All 70 coaches registered with the Alberta Gymnastics Federation as working with female gymnasts were approached; 64 coaches were interviewed. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Injury education, access to medical care, perceptions of sports-injury treatment provided by family physicians, strategies employed for overcoming perceived poor advice. RESULTS: Education in injury care and management was varied, as was access to medical care. Direct access to sport-specific medical care was available at three of the five elite-level clubs, an arrangement stemming from dissatisfaction with the conventional health care system. At all competitive levels, most coaches were dissatisfied with the recommendations they received from family physicians. Various strategies were employed to acquire more suitable advice. CONCLUSIONS: The results point to a need for improved communication between family physicians and coaches.

Adult↗