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PubMed2003

Cardiovascular and thromboembolic events following hypertensive pregnancy.

BACKGROUND: Hypertension is a common complication of pregnancy. Previous evidence has linked pregnancy-related hypertension to maternal cardiovascular disease. We conducted a population-based cohort study to estimate the risks for cardiovascular and thromboembolic events in women with pregnancy-related hypertension. METHODS: We analyzed data from all singleton births recorded in Washington State from 1987 to 1998. Mothers were classified as having gestational hypertension, preeclampsia, or chronic hypertension based on hospital discharge and birth record information. Birth records were linked to subsequent hospitalizations within Washington State. Proportional hazards models were used to estimate the relationship between each form of pregnancy-related hypertension and subsequent risk for cardiovascular and thromboembolic events. RESULTS: We identified 31,239 eligible hypertensive pregnancies from 807,010 births. During follow-up, there were 118 hospitalizations for a first acute cardiovascular event and 172 hospitalizations for a first thromboembolic event. Gestational hypertension, mild preeclampsia, and severe preeclampsia were associated with 2.8-fold (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.6 to 4.8), 2.2-fold (95% CI, 1.3 to 3.6), and 3.3-fold (95% CI, 1.7 to 6.5) greater risks for cardiovascular events, respectively. Severe preeclampsia was associated with a 2.3-fold (95% CI, 1.3 to 4.2) greater risk for thromboembolic events. CONCLUSION: Preeclampsia and gestational hypertension are associated with increased risk for cardiovascular events. Pregnancy-induced hypertension appears to be an important risk factor for the development of future cardiovascular disease in young women.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Comparative effects of early weaning or once-daily suckling on occurrence of postpartum estrus in primiparous beef cows.

We concurrently evaluated early weaning and once-daily suckling as options for shortening postpartum interval to estrus in primiparous cows calving in good body condition. Over 2 consecutive years, a total of 77 primiparous cows were assigned to 1 of 3 treatments: control (ad libitum suckling); once-daily suckling (for 30 d prior to start of breeding); or early weaning (calves weaned 30 d prior to start of breeding). All cows had a body condition score (BCS) of > or = 5 at parturition and were maintained in good condition throughout the breeding season. Cows were observed for estrus twice daily and blood samples for subsequent measurement of progesterone were collected at 48-h intervals. For data analysis, cows were divided into early- (> or = 85 d post partum) and late-calving (< 85 d post partum) groups at the onset of the breeding season. All calves were weighed at birth, at the onset of treatment, at weekly intervals until the start of the breeding season, and within 45 d of 205 d of age. Early weaning or once-daily suckling shortened the postpartum interval to first estrus of late-calving primiparous cows by 17 (P < 0.01) and 12 d (P < 0.08), respectively, compared with control group cows. However, among early-calving cows, neither early weaning nor once-daily suckling influenced the postpartum interval. Postpartum intervals of once-daily suckled cows and early-weaned cows were similar (P > 0.10).

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Variation in mammographic breast density by race.

PURPOSE: Because of the observed racial differences in risk of developing breast cancer, the authors conducted a study to determine the variation in breast density, a strong predictor of breast cancer risk, by race and age. METHODS: Study subjects were women enrolled in Group Health Cooperative of Puget Sound, Seattle, WA, aged 20-79 years, who had a screening mammogram between 6/1/96 and 8/1/97. Women with increased breast density (BI-RADS "heterogeneously dense" and "extremely dense") (n = 14,178) were compared to those with fatty breasts (BI-RADS "almost entirely fat" and "scattered fibroglandular tissue") (n = 14,323). Logistic regression was used with adjustment for age, parity, age at first birth, menopausal status, current use of hormone replacement therapy, and body mass index. RESULTS: The odds ratio (OR) for having dense breasts versus fatty breasts, comparing Asian to White women, increased from 1.2 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.9-1.6] for women age <45 to 1.6 (95% CI 1.3-2.2) for women over 65. Conversely, the OR for Black compared to White women was highest for the women age 65 and younger (OR 1.7 (1.2-2.3), 1.3(1.0-1.7), and 1.7 (1.2-2.3) for women age <45, 46-55, and 56-65, respectively), whereas Black women over 65 had similar density as Whites. Hispanic women had similar density compared to Whites for all ages. CONCLUSIONS: These racial differences in breast density generally do not conform to differences in race and age-specific breast cancer incidence rates.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Postneonatal and child mortality among twins in Southern and Eastern Africa.

BACKGROUND: Few studies have evaluated the difference in mortality between twins and singleton children during the postneonatal and childhood period in sub-Saharan Africa. The aim of this study was to quantify the excess mortality of twins during the postneonatal and childhood period and to identify factors that contribute to the excess mortality among twins. The different use made of health care services was hypothesized to contribute to the increased mortality. METHODS: The Demographic and Health Survey data on Malawi, Tanzania and Zambia were pooled. Logistic regression was used to estimate twin/singleton differences for the combined postneonatal and child mortality and to study the role of intermediate factors and effect modifiers. RESULTS: The study was based on 18 214 singleton children and 706 twins. The twin/ singleton odds ratio (OR) of the combined postneonatal and child mortality was 2.33 (95% CI : 1.85-2.93). This excess mortality was largest during the first year of life. Control for intermediate factors (preventive health care and breastfeeding) did not sizeably diminish the mortality difference. Effect modifiers that were associated with increased twin/singleton OR were male sex, unwanted child, short birth interval and low socioeconomic status. CONCLUSIONS: The excess mortality of twins compared to singletons is considerable. A difference in use of preventive health care or in breastfeeding cannot explain the increased mortality. Males, unwanted children, those born after a short birth interval and the socioeconomically disadvantaged are at special risk. The generally good attendance at under-5 clinics gives health care providers the opportunity for increased surveillance of these high-risk groups.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1996

Child growth during weaning depends on whether mother is pregnant again.

Few longitudinal studies are available which relate data on breastfeeding and growth of the last-born child to data on the mother's subsequent pregnancy. The purpose of the present prospective study from Bhutan was to compare growth rate of children weaned during a subsequent pregnancy, with those of children weaned at the same age, but from non-pregnant mothers. Measurements of weight of 113 children and interviews with their mothers were done monthly through 32 months during the children's first 3 years of life. The period of overlap between lactation and pregnancy had a median duration of 5 months, and increased with an average of one week for each month reduction in the subsequent birth interval (P< 0.01). Children who stopped breastfeeding during their mothers' subsequent pregnancy showed a reduced growth rate during the last months before termination of breastfeeding when compared to children weaned at the same age, but from non-pregnant mothers (P = 0.04), and when compared to children who continued breastfeeding (P = 0.06).

Bhutan↗

PubMed2002

Midluteal endometrial biopsy and alphavbeta3 integrin expression in the evaluation of the endometrium in infertility: implications for fecundity.

It has been recently proposed that the immunohistochemical evaluation of alphavbeta3 integrin in combination with histologic dating in midluteal endometrial biopsy specimens should be performed to evaluate the endometrial receptivity in the infertile patient. However, no studies have attempted to correlate these findings with subsequent fecundity. In 100 consecutive infertile patients (mean age 31.9+/-3.4 years) undergoing a routine work-up, two endometrial biopsies were performed during a single menstrual cycle: a midluteal biopsy on postovulatory days 6 to 8 and another biopsy 4 days later. Histological dating and immunohistochemical evaluation of alphavbeta3 integrin expression were done in all endometrial biopsy specimens. All patients were followed without treatment during 18 to 24 months (mean 23.5+/-1.4, range 18 to 24). Twenty-five midluteal biopsies showed out-of-phase endometria, whereas all but one late-luteal biopsy specimens were in-phase. Glandular alphavbeta3 integrin expression was observed in 50% of midluteal specimens with this expression being significantly more frequent among in-phase (63%) than among out-of-phase (12%) specimens (p<0.001). However, all late-luteal specimens strongly expressed this integrin. Thirty-eight women became spontaneously pregnant during the follow-up period, 32 ended in a live birth and 6 in first trimester spontaneous abortion. The Cox regression method showed no differences between the hazard of pregnancy when the alphavbeta3 integrin-positive and -negative groups were compared (odds ratio 1.25; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.66-2.36; p=0.49) or when patients with in-phase endometria were compared with those with delayed endometrial maturation (odds ratio 1.12; 95% CI 0.53-2.37; p=0.76). In conclusion, neither midluteal histological evaluation nor alphavbeta3 integrin expression in mid- or late-luteal endometrial biopsy specimens correlated with outcome for subsequently untreated infertile women.

Abortion, Spontaneous↗

PubMed1995

Cancer incidence among Icelandic nurses.

This study investigated cancer incidence among Icelandic nurses, with a special focus on breast cancer. Cancer incidence in the study group was compared with that of the general female population. Elevated standardized incidence ratios (SIRs) were seen for some cancer sites, including breast cancer. For all cancers, breast cancer, and selected cancer sites, SIR increased with increasing length of time intervals allowed to elapse before the study period began. The nurses with a shorter employment time had a higher incidence of cancer than those with a longer one. Known confounding factors--parity and age at first birth--do not appear to be a convincing explanation of the excess of breast cancer. The possibility cannot be excluded that the nursing occupation constitutes an independent risk factor for breast cancer.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Infants' perception of object trajectories.

Filling in the gaps in what humans see is a fundamental perceptual skill, but little is known about the developmental origins of occlusion perception. Three experiments were conducted with infants between 2 and 6 months of age to investigate perception of the continuity of an object trajectory that was briefly occluded. The pattern of results across experiments provided little evidence of veridical responses to trajectory occlusion in the youngest infants, but by 6 months, perceptual completion was more robust. Four-month-olds' responses indicated that they perceived continuity under a short duration of occlusion, but when the object was out of sight for a longer interval, they appeared to perceive the trajectory as discontinuous. These results suggest that perceptual completion of a simple object trajectory (and, by logical necessity, veridical object perception) is not functional at birth but emerges across the first several months after onset of visual experience.

Female↗

PubMed1998

A randomised placebo controlled trial of oral misoprostol in the third stage of labour.

OBJECTIVE: To compare oral misoprostol 400 microg with placebo in the routine management of the third stage of labour. DESIGN: A double-blind placebo controlled trial. Setting The labour ward of an academic hospital in Johannesburg, South Africa with 7000 deliveries per annum. PARTICIPANTS: Low-risk women expected to deliver vaginally. METHODS: Women in labour were randomly allocated to receive either misoprostol 400 microg orally or placebo after the birth. Conventional oxytocics were given immediately if blood loss was thought to be more than usual. Postpartum blood loss in the first hour was measured by collection in a special flat plastic bedpan. Side effects were recorded. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Measured blood loss > or = 1000 ml within the first hour after birth. Use of additional oxytocics. RESULTS: The groups were well matched. Measured blood loss > or = 1000 ml occurred in 15/250 (6%) after misoprostol and 23/250 (9%) after placebo (relative risk 0.65; 95% confidence interval 0.35-1.22). The difference may have been reduced by the greater use of conventional oxytocics in the placebo group, which was statistically significant for intravenous oxytocin infusion (2.8% vs 8.4%, relative risk 0.33, 95% confidence interval 0.14-0.77). Shivering was more common in the misoprostol group (19% vs 5%, relative risk 3.69; 95% confidence interval 2.05-6.64). CONCLUSIONS: Shivering has been shown in this study to be a specific side effect of misoprostol administered orally in the puerperium. No serious side effects were noted. Misoprostol shows promise as a method of preventing postpartum haemorrhage. Because of the potential benefits for childbearing women, particularly those in developing countries, further research to determine its effects with greater certainty should be expedited.

Administration, Oral↗

PubMed1993

Effects of time, sex, ethnic origin, and area of residence on prevalence of asthma in Israeli adolescents.

OBJECTIVES: To study effects of time, sex, ethnic origin, and area of residence on prevalence of asthma in Israeli adolescents. DESIGN: Retrospective survey of asthma from computerised medical draft records of conscripts examined up to the end of 1989. SETTING: Five regional centres in Israel. SUBJECTS: 443 186 conscripts (262 836 males and 180 350 females) aged 17-18 who were born over a nine year period. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Asthma determined by medical history, physical examination, and lung function tests at rest and after exercise. RESULTS: Asthma was more prevalent in males than females (26.5/1000 v 21.4/1000, relative risk 1.25 (95% confidence interval 1.19 to 1.32)). Subjects were split into three groups according to year of birth, and prevalence of asthma increased over time from 18/1000 to 24/1000 to 36/1000 (risk of asthma 0.56 (0.54 to 0.59) for first birth group relative to last birth group and 0.69 (0.66 to 0.72) for second group relative to last group). Risk of asthma was also affected by ethnic origin (highest for Western origin and lowest for north African origin, relative risk 1.63 (1.56 to 1.71)) and area of residence (highest in the central coastal region--risk of 1.24 (1.19 to 1.30) relative to the north coastal region--and lowest in inland areas--risk of 0.67 (0.64 to 0.70) relative to north coastal region). CONCLUSIONS: Prevalence of asthma in Israel is increasing and is higher in males, in people of Western origin, and in those living in the most industrialised coastal region.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2003

Weight of preterm newborns during the first twelve weeks of life.

A longitudinal and prospective study was carried out at two state-operated maternity hospitals in Belo Horizonte during 1996 in order to assess the weight of preterm appropriate-for-gestational-age newborns during the first twelve weeks of life. Two hundred and sixty appropriate-for-gestational-age preterm infants with birth weight <2500 g were evaluated weekly. The infants were divided into groups based on birth weight at 250-g intervals. Using weight means, somatic growth curves were constructed and adjusted to Count's model. Absolute (g/day) and relative (g kg-1 day-1) velocity curves were obtained from a derivative of this model. The growth curve was characterized by weight loss during the 1st week (4-6 days) ranging from 5.9 to 13.3% (the greater the percentage, the lower the birth weight), recovery of birth weight within 17 and 21 days, and increasingly higher rates of weight gain after the 3rd week. These rates were proportional to birth weight when expressed as g/day (the lowest and the highest birth weight neonates gained 15.9 and 30.1 g/day, respectively). However, if expressed as g kg-1 day-1, the rates were inversely proportional to birth weight (during the 3rd week, the lowest and the highest weight newborns gained 18.0 and 11.5 g kg-1 day-1, respectively). During the 12th week the rates were similar for all groups (7.5 to 10.2 g kg-1 day-1). The relative velocity accurately reflects weight gain of preterm infants who are appropriate for gestational age and, in the present study, it was inversely proportional to birth weight, with a peak during the 3rd week of life, and a homogeneous behavior during the 12th week for all weight groups.

Anthropometry↗

PubMed2001

Safety of the insect repellent N,N-diethyl-M-toluamide (DEET) in pregnancy.

The safety of daily application of N, N-diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET) (1.7 g of DEET/day) in the second and third trimesters of pregnancy was assessed as part of a double-blind, randomized, therapeutic trial of insect repellents for the prevention of malaria in pregnancy (n = 897). No adverse neurologic, gastrointestinal, or dermatologic effects were observed for women who applied a median total dose of 214.2 g of DEET per pregnancy (range = 0-345.1 g). DEET crossed the placenta and was detected in 8% (95% confidence interval = 2.6-18.2) of cord blood samples from a randomly selected subgroup of DEET users (n = 50). No adverse effects on survival, growth, or development at birth, or at one year, were found. This is the first study to document the safety of DEET applied regularly in the second and third trimesters of pregnancy. The results suggest that the risk of DEET accumulating in the fetus is low and that DEET is safe to use in later pregnancy.

Administration, Cutaneous↗

PubMed1991

A discrete-time communicable disease model with a stochastic contact rate for nonhomogeneous populations.

A discrete-time communicable disease model with a stochastic contact rate for nonhomogeneous populations is described which is capable of simulating the irregular incidence patterns seen in many communicable diseases. The epidemic curve for these contagious diseases is typically characterized by epidemics of varying intensity separated by variable time intervals. The compartmental model is an extension to the Reed-Frost theory with age-specific stochastic contact rates. The population is partitioned into age constant groups and is closed; the births flowing into the first age group equals the deaths from all age groups. The population in each age group is subdivided into four states that characterize the course of an infection: susceptible, incubation, infectious, and immune. The incubation and infectious states are divided further depending on the length of the time period and the statistics of the condition. The age specific contact rates are random variables with a seasonal variation and a population specified density function. An example is presented in which all parameters and distributions of the model are estimated for measles in the city of Baltimore, Maryland for the years 1900 through 1917. The computer calculated epidemic curves adequately describe the incidence pattern of the data with no significant differences noted.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1976

[The development of transaminase activity (SGOT and SGPT), lactate dehydrogenase and alkaline phosphatase in the blood plasma of calves up to the age of 4 months].

A trial was performed in 204 healthy calves (heifers) of the Bohemian Spotted breed in the post-natal period from birth to the age of four months. The activities of the following enzymes in blood plasma were determined: L-aspartate: 2-oxoglutarate: aminotransferase, EC.2.6.1.1. (GOT), L-alanine: oxoglutarate: aminotransferase, EC.2.6.1.2. (GPT), L-lactate: NAD oxidoreductase, EC.1.1.1.27 (LDH), and orthophosphoric acid monoester phosphohydrolase, EC.3.1.3.1. (alkaline phosphatase). The calves were divided into age categories according to the date of birth with an interval of one week. GOT activity in blood plasma increased significantly until the age of eight weeks (from the original value of 1.1708 +/- 0.2598 micronmol ml-1 to 1.8150 +/- 0.6362 micronmol ml-1, with the maximum of 2.0317 +/- 0.7777 micronmol ml-1 of plasma in the sixth week). In the subsequent period the GOT curve has not a characteristic course. While the activity of GOT increased in the first weeks after birth, the activity of GPT showed a significant drop (from the original level of 0.9000 +/- 0.3364 micronmol ml-1 to the minimum of 0.3675 +/- 0.1901 micronmol ml-1 of plasma in the seventh week); from the 10th week on the values rise so that at the end of the period of study they reach almost the same levels as in calves in the first postnatal week. The activity of LDH in blood plasma remains at almost the same level in the first five weeks after birth (between 43.4025 +/- 8.4893 micronmol ml-1 and 46.3792 +/- 14.8952 micronmol ml-1 of plasma); it was at a statistically significantly higher level only in a short period between the 7th and 10th week after birth. The highest values of alkaline phosphatase in blood plasma were recorded at the age of two or three weeks (maximum in the second week 23.9833 +/- 9.0945 micronmol ml-1 of plasma); from the fourth week on, the values of alkaline phosphatase are significantly lower until the end of the test period, ranging betweek 5.3133 +/- 1.6017 micronmol ml-1 and 7.5425 +/- 2.2437 micronmol ml-1 of plasma. Changes conditioned by postnatal development were observed in the development of all the enzymatic activities under study, the greatest changes being observed in alkaline phosphatase.

Age Factors↗

PubMed2003

Use of healthcare resources, family function, and socioeconomic support during the first four years after preterm birth.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the use of healthcare resources for preterm infants and to evaluate family function and socioeconomic support in a defined population from birth to 4 years of age. METHODS: In a prospective case-control study, 39 singleton preterm infants without prenatal abnormalities born during an 18 month period were studied together with their families. The population consisted of 19 very preterm infants (less than 32 weeks) and 20 randomised moderate preterm infants (32-35 weeks), and the control group comprised 39 full term infants. Contacts with medical services, child health services, and the social welfare system were registered, and family function and life events were studied. RESULTS: The preterm children were more often readmitted to hospital (odds ratio (OR) 6.6, 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.0 to 22.1) and had more outpatient attendances (OR 5.6, 95% CI 2.1 to 15.0) during their first year of life. Mothers in the preterm group more often used temporary parental allowance than the control mothers (p < 0.001). The number of contacts with the child health services and the social welfare system did not differ significantly from the controls. Neither was there any significant difference with regard to family function or life events at 4 years of age. CONCLUSIONS: A large proportion of the premature children used specialist care during the first years of life. However, the families of the preterm infants were socially well adapted up to four years after birth compared with the control families.

Adult↗

PubMed2024

Causal effect of the age at first birth with depression: a mendelian randomization study.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to explore the causal relationship between age at first birth (AFB) and depression. METHODS: Using the univariable Mendelian randomization (UVMR) and multivariable Mendelian randomization (MVMR) methods to examine the potential correlation between age at first birth (AFB) and major depressive disorder and postpartum depression. A public database was used to obtain the genome-wide association studies (GWAS) summary data. We put inverse-variance-weighted (IVW) as the primary method in Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis and used sensitivity analysis to confirm the robustness of our result. RESULTS: We found a significant causal association between AFB and major depressive disorder by using the IVW algorithm (odd ratio [OR] 0.826; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.793 - 0.861; P = 4.51 × 10- 20). MR-Egger, weighted median, simple mode and weighted mode method concluded the same result (P < 0.05). During the sensitivity analysis, the heterogeneity test (Q-value = 55.061, df = 48, P = 2.81 × 10- 01, I2 = 12.82%) and the leave-one-out plot analysis confirmed the stability of the results. The outcomes of the pleiotropy test (MR-Egger intercept = 8.932 × 10- 3. SE = 6.909 × 10- 3. P = 2.02 × 10- 01) and MR_PRESSO global test (P = 2.03 × 10- 01) indicated there is no pleiotropy. CONCLUSION: There is solid evidence that a higher age at first birth is associated with a lower risk of major depressive disorder.

Humans↗

PubMed2002

Perinatal complications among ethnic Somalis in Norway.

BACKGROUND: The majority of ethnic Somali women in Norway have undergone an elaborate form of circumcision (infibulation). The aim of this study was to examine the risk of perinatal complications among ethnic Somalis and to discuss its relation to circumcision. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional population-based registry study. Data on all births to women born in Somalia (1733) and Norway (702 192) from 1986 to 1998 was provided from the Medical Birth Registry of Norway. We analyzed the risk of perinatal complications among women of Somali origin vs. ethnic Norwegians using univariate and multivariate methods. RESULTS: Perinatal complications were more frequent among women of Somali origin than among ethnic Norwegians. These included induction of labor, fetal distress, secondary arrest, prolonged second stage of labor, operative delivery and perinatal death. Particularly elevated odds ratios were found for fetal distress (odds ratio=2.6, 95% confidence interval (CI); 2.2-3.0), emergency cesarean sections (odds ratio=3.0, 95% confidence interval 2.6-3.4), Apgar scores below seven (odds ratio = 3.1, 95% confidence interval 2.4-4.0) and prelabor fetal deaths (odds ratio=2.5, 95% confidence interval 1.7-3.7). CONCLUSION: Similar findings in infibulated vs. noncircumcised women have been demonstrated previously in other studies indicating that circumcision could play a role. The current study is the first to be conducted among Somali women in Europe. However, the results are not informative on whether the adverse birth outcomes are caused by infibulation as such or in combination with suboptimal perinatal care, intercurrent diseases and sociocultural factors. Somali women represent a high-risk group in obstetrics, calling for special attention and care.

Adult↗

PubMed1997

Weight gain during the first year of life in relation to maternal smoking and breast feeding in Norway.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the weight gain during the first year of life in relation to maternal smoking during pregnancy and the duration of breastfeeding. DESIGN: This was a one year cohort study. SETTING: The city of Oslo, Norway. PARTICIPANTS: Altogether 3020 children born in Oslo in 1992-93. Children were divided into three groups as follows: 2208 born to non-smoking mothers, 451 to mothers who were light smokers (< 10 cigarettes per day), and 261 to mothers who were heavy smokers (> or = 10 cigarettes per day). MAIN RESULTS: The mean birth weights were 3616 g, 3526 g, and 3382 g and 1 year body weights were 10,056 g (gain 6440 g per year), 10,141 g (6615 g), and 10,158 g (6776 g) in children of non-smoking and light and heavy smoking mothers respectively. Cox regression analysis showed that children of heavy smokers were 2.0 (95% confidence interval, 1.7, 2.3) times and children of light smokers 1.3 (1.2, 1.5) times more likely to have stopped breast feeding during their first year of life compared with children whose mothers were non-smokers. Linear regression analysis, adjusting for confounders, showed that weight gain was slower in breast fed children than in those who were not breast fed (-38 g (-50, -27) per month of breast feeding). Compared with children of non-smokers, the adjusted weight gain was 147 g (40, 255) per year greater in children of light smokers and 184 g (44, 324) per year in children of heavy smokers. CONCLUSION: Children catch up any losses in birth weight due to maternal smoking, but some of the catch up effect is caused by a shorter duration of breast feeding in children of smoking mothers.

Birth Weight↗