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PubMed1995

Clenbuterol: a substitute for anabolic steroids?

Clenbuterol is a recently popular drug used by athletes in many sports for its purported anabolic effects and reduction of subcutaneous fat. It is a beta-2 (beta 2) agonist prescribed overseas as a bronchodilator, but not approved for use in this country. It is on the banned substance list of the United States Olympic Committee. To avoid any erosion of confidence, physicians caring for athletes need accurate information regarding clenbuterol. Such information is unavailable within the routine medical environs. A review of the literature of animal husbandry reveals that this drug, when administered in doses far greater than those required for bronchodilation, does indeed increase the deposition rate of lean mass and retard adipose gain. There are no human studies available. Animal studies were conducted on laboratory and slaughter stock. No investigation into long-term cardiovascular side effects has been undertaken. The rate of extrapolation from animal studies to unsupervised human usage is alarming. If this category of drugs does preserve lean mass in humans, there are legitimate medical applications. Trials of efficacy and safety are needed.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1994

[Progress in the red cell substitutes (artificial red cells)].

Recent progress of red cell substitutes to apply clinical use are overviewed. In response to the requisites as oxygen transporters, characteristics and present status are summarized for hemoglobin-based substitutes (polymer-conjugated Hb, polymerized Hb, crosslinked Hb). Concentrated hemoglobin covered with thin phospholipid bimolecular layer membranes (hemoglobin-vesicle) transports the sufficient amount of oxygen with excellent solution properties and safety. Furthermore, performances of two types of totally synthetic oxygen carrier are introduced such as lipid-heme embedding in the bilayer of a phospholipid vesicle and lipid-heme in the fat-microsphere composed of the emulsion for the nutrimental infusions.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Dietary fat-induced increase in blood pressure and insulin resistance in rats.

OBJECTIVES: To determine whether the dietary-fat-induced increase in blood pressure is caused by excess energy intake or the fat composition of the diet, what type of fat increases the blood pressure, and whether insulin resistance is involved in the dietary-fat-induced increase in blood pressure. METHODS: In a series of experiments, rats received: chow alone or chow supplemented with lard or sucrose to provide 33% of a total energy content increased by 50%; chow alone or chow in which 50% of the energy content was from substituted lard, safflower oil or medium-chain triglyceride oil; or chow alone or chow in which 50% of the energy content was from substituted lard, with or without troglitazone. Systolic blood pressure (SBP) was measured every week during each 8-week feeding period. A steady-state serum glucose method was used to determine the insulin sensitivity after the lard substitution with or without troglitazone. RESULTS: Both the lard and sucrose enrichment increased SBP and body weight compared with controls. Lard substitution significantly increased SBP and immunoreactive insulin, although body weight did not differ from control. Neither a diet substituted with safflower oil nor one substituted with medium-chain triglyceride oil influenced SBP. Troglitazone completely inhibited the increase in SBP and immunoreactive insulin induced by the lard. The steady-state serum glucose concentration was significantly greater after the lard substitution than after isoenergetic chow; this effect also was reversed by troglitazone. CONCLUSION: Chronic feeding with lard increased SBP in rats, independently of excess energy intake. Of the fats tested, lard exerted an intrinsic pressor effect. Troglitazone reversed the lard-induced increase in SBP.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1992

Body composition, energy utilization, and nitrogen metabolism with a 4.25-MJ/d low-energy diet supplemented with pyruvate.

We measured body composition, energy deficit, and nitrogen metabolism in 14 obese women housed in a metabolic ward, who consumed a 4.25-MJ/d liquid diet (68% carbohydrate, 22% protein) for 21 d with or without pyruvate (PY; n = 7) partially, isoenergetically substituted for glucose (placebo; n = 7). Body composition and leucine oxidation and turnover were determined before and after weight loss. Energy deficit was calculated from resting metabolic rates. Subjects fed pyruvate showed a greater weight loss (PY = 5.9 +/- 0.7 kg, placebo = 4.3 +/- 0.3 kg, P less than 0.05), fat loss (PY = 4.0 +/- 0.5 kg, placebo = 2.7 +/- 0.2 kg, P less than 0.05), kg wt loss/4.25-MJ deficit (PY = 0.22 +/- 0.01 kg, placebo = 0.17 +/- 0.01 kg, P less than 0.05, and kg fat loss/4.25-MJ deficit (PY = 0.15 +/- 0.01 kg, placebo = 0.11 +/- 0.01 kg, P less than 0.05). Nitrogen balance (urine and stool) and leucine oxidation and turnover were similar in both groups. We conclude that the dietary modification whereby the three-carbon compound pyruvate is isoenergetically substituted for the six-carbon compound glucose in a 4.25-MJ/d, low-energy diet will increase fat and weight loss.

Body Composition↗
PubMed1991

Vascular cell responses to a hybrid transforming growth factor-beta molecule.

Functional biological assays were performed using a hybrid molecule of Transforming Growth Factor-Beta (TGF-5 beta) where nine amino acids near the cleavage site of TGF-beta 1 were substituted with nine amino acids located in the identical position of TGF-beta 2. Bovine aortic endothelial and smooth muscle cells as well as rat epididymal fat pad microvascular endothelia were studied in three distinct bioassays examining proliferation, migration and angiogenesis. The data suggested TGF-5 beta elicited results that do not differ significantly from the TGF-beta 1 isoform, while TGF-beta 2 expressed unique characteristics. We have also shown that these amino acid substitutions to TGF-beta 1 do not, in fact, alter the biological functions of the growth factor.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Initiation of hyperinsulinemia and hyperleptinemia is diet dependent in C57BL/6 mice.

C57BL/6 female mice were fed high fat diets containing different types of carbohydrate (sucrose or corn starch) and contents of cholesterol (0.03 % or 1 %) to identify early metabolic changes leading to increases in leptin levels and eventual insulin resistance. Under identical dietary fat conditions, type of carbohydrate and cholesterol content contributed to the timing of leptin increases. Mice fed a high-fat, high-sucrose diet showed early (4 weeks) and robust increases in circulating insulin and leptin levels (2-fold and 5-fold, respectively). In contrast, mice fed this diet with added cholesterol or with sucrose substituted by corn starch led to marked delays (8-10 weeks) in the elevations of insulin and leptin, although body weight gains were nearly identical among test diet groups. Thus, sucrose in combination with saturated fat played a specific role in initiating early metabolic changes associated with elevated leptin and insulin levels. Because leptin levels were most reflective of changes in insulin, our data support a role for insulin in determining plasma leptin levels in mice.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

The effect of date of cut and barley substitution on gain and on the efficiency of utilization of grass silage by growing cattle. 1. Gains in live weight and its components.

1. A primary growth of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) was cut early or late to produce silages of high and low digestibility. The crops were wilted for 2-4 h and preserved with formic acid at 2.4 litres/t fresh weight. The resulting silages were well preserved with a pH of 3.9 and 3.8, lactic acid content of 108 and 73 g/kg dry matter (DM) and total nitrogen content of 24.6 and 18.4 g/kg DM for early- and late-cut silage respectively. 2. Forty-two British Friesian male castrates (steers) initially 12 months of age and 305 kg live weight (LW) were used, of which ten were slaughtered at the start of the experiment. The remaining steers were divided into four groups of eight animals and were given the early-cut silage alone (H) or the late-cut silage alone (L) or with barley at either 280 (LC1) or 560 (LC2) g DM/kg total DM. The intake of total DM was restricted to a daily allowance of 18 g DM/kg LW and the steers were slaughtered in two groups after 119 and 140 d on experiment. 3. Both earlier cutting of herbage and substitution of late-cut silage with barley significantly (P less than 0.001) increased the apparent digestibility of gross energy (H0.748, L0.619, LC10.668, LC20.705), whereas earlier cutting increased the digestibility of acid-detergent fibre from 0.638 (L) to 0.777 (H) and substitution with barley resulted in a significant (P less than 0.001) depression to 0.595 (LC1) and 0.519 (LC2). Substitution of late-cut silage with barley significantly (P less than 0.001) increased metabolizable energy (ME) intake from 58.9 (L) to 69.5 MJ/d (LC2) and crude protein (N x 6.25; CP) intake from 688 (L) to 779 g/d (LC2), but the highest intakes of ME and CP (73.5 MJ/d and 952 g/d respectively) were achieved with the early-cut silage. 4. Earlier cutting resulted in significant (P less than 0.001) increases in body-weight gain from 292 to 696 g/d, fat gain from 121 to 260 g/d, protein gain from 31.1 to 86.9 g/d and energy retention from 5.5 to 12.2 MJ/d for silages L and H respectively. However, substitution of the late-cut silage with barley increased gains to a greater extent. Thus, empty-body gain was increased to 552 and 800 g/d, fat gain to 189 and 302 g/d, protein gain to 76 and 116 g/d and energy retention to 9.2 and 14.6 MJ/d for diets LC1 and LC2 respectively.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Animal Feed↗
PubMed2004

Persistent organochlorine pesticide levels in bovine fat from Mexico.

Organochlorine pesticides have been used in Mexico in agriculture as a seed dresser, in sanitation, in malaria control programmes and in livestock to combat ectoparasites. The pesticides applied drift to areas where cattle graze and plants grow. Because of their chemical stability, they accumulate in the lipid-rich tissues of the body. In the body, they circulate throughout all compartments and accumulate in adipose fat. The aim was to monitor the organochlorine pesticide levels in bovine muscle fat and kidney fat from cows living in an endemic malaria zone, where the environmental contamination can be suspected as being higher. Two hundred samples (100 muscle fat, 100 kidney fat) were analysed by gas chromatography. From the pesticides, only hexachlorobenzene (HCB), beta-hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), gamma-HCH, pp'-1.1.1-trichloro-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethane (DDT), op'-DDT and pp'-DDE, were detected frequently and at levels above the detection limits. The HCB mean level was low at 0.009 mg kg(-1) on a fat basis. From the HCH isomers, beta-HCH mean concentration was 0.039 mg kg(-1) and gamma-HCH was 0.025 mg kg(-1) on a fat basis. Among DDTs, pp'-DDT was the major constituent (0.032 mg kg(-1) on a fat basis) followed by pp'-DDE (0.025 mg kg(-1) on a fat basis) and op'-DDT (0.023 mg kg(-1) on a fat basis). The DDT total (sigma DDT) level was 0.067 mg kg(-1) on a fat basis. Comparing the previous study (1994) and the present one (2002-03), organochlorine pesticide levels were decreased. HCB decreased 3.7 times from 0.033 to 0.009 mg kg(-1) on a fat basis; beta-HCH decreased 3.8 times from 0.149 to 0.039 mg kg(-1) on a fat basis; pp'-DDE did not reveal a significant difference at 0.026 versus 0.025 mg kg(-1) on a fat basis. However, pp'-DDT decreased substantially, 6.7 times from 0.215 to 0.032 mg kg(-1) on a fat basis. The DDT total decreased 3.5 times from 0.236 to 0.067 mg kg(-1) on a fat basis. The tendency for reduced concentrations in organochlorine pesticide levels in Mexican cows is caused by their substitution with pyrethroids used in agriculture and by the Mexican Ministry of Health in sanitary programmes.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1981

The effect of rolled oats on blood lipids and fecal steroid excretion in man.

Rolled oats (125 g daily) were substituted for breakfast cereals and wheat flour in the metabolically controlled diets of 10 subjects for 3 wk. Fat and energy intakes in the 2-wk control periods before and after the oat period were adjusted by addition of an oil with a similar fatty acid composition to the lipid in the oats. Plasma total cholesterol concentrations were reduced in seven of 10 subjects, but over the whole group the mean reduction of 8% was not significant (0.05 less than p less than 0.01). High-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations and plasma triglyceride levels were unchanged. Fecal fat excretion was increased by 47% (p less 0.005) and fecal bile acid excretion by 35% (p less than 0.01) but neutral steroid excretion was unchanged on the oatmeal diet.

Adult↗
PubMed1982

Obesity in Osborne-Mendel and S 5B/Pl rats: effects of sucrose solutions, castration, and treatment with estradiol or insulin.

S 5B/Pl rats were tested for their susceptibility to develop obesity when 1) ovariectomized, 2) given injections of insulin, and 3) given a sucrose solution to drink instead of water. The results obtained in Osborne-Mendel rats susceptible to dietary obesity when fed a high-fat diet were compared to those obtained in the S 5B/Pl rats not susceptible to dietary obesity. When tested at the end of 10 wk, ovariectomized rats of both strains had gained 22% more weight than sham-operated controls. Replacement estradiol injections suppressed food intake in both strains with a concomitant loss in body weight. Osborne-Mendel rats tolerated at least 40 U of U-100 protamine zinc insulin/day and rapidly gained weight whereas S 5B/Pl rats given more than 2 U U-100 protamine zinc insulin/day died. Compared to female Osborne-Mendel rats drinking water, rats drinking a sucrose solution accumulated more body fat and had higher levels of serum immunoreactive insulin and lower levels of serum free fatty acids. The substitution of a sucrose solution for plain drinking water suppressed weight gain in S 5B/Pl rats.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Effects of feed intake and dietary level of wet corn gluten feed on feedlot performance, digestibility of nutrients, and carcass characteristics of growing-finishing beef heifers.

The objective was to compare the relative energy value of wet corn gluten feed (WCGF) to that of corn in a feedlot situation when diets were initially offered ad libitum (AL) or at restricted feed intake (RFI; 80% of AL). In a completely randomized block (pen location) design experiment, 144 beef heifers (204.1 +/- 18.2 kg) were used (six treatments; three pens of eight heifers/treatment). Treatments were levels of WCGF (on DM basis) in corn silage-based diets (AL; 25 or 50% WCGF) or high-moisture corn-based diets (RFI; 0, 25, 50, or 75% WCGF) during the growing phase (127 d). During finishing (84 d), all diets were offered AL and contained 5% corn silage by replacing corn silage with high-moisture corn in diets that were offered AL. Heifers that were initially at AL had similar (P > .1) feedlot performance (during growing and during the whole trial), digestibility of nutrients (OM, NDF, CP, and GE), and carcass characteristics. During finishing, however, these heifers had better (P = .06) ADG and gain:feed when 25% WCGF was fed. Heifers that were initially at RFI showed a linear decrease (P < .01) in ADG and gain:feed during growing with increasing dietary level of WCGF. However, increasing dietary level of WCGF resulted in a quadratic (P = .02) response in ADG and gain:feed during finishing and also in a quadratic (P = .07) response in ADG and a linear (P = .005) decrease in gain:feed during the whole trial. These quadratic responses indicated that the best performance was achieved at the 25 and 50% levels of WCGF. The decrease in cumulative gain:feed was only 3.5% at the 25 and 50% levels of WCGF but it was 11.4% at the 75% level. Increasing the level of WCGF in diets of heifers that were initially at restricted feed intake did not affect (P > .1) digestibility of nutrients but it improved some carcass characteristics linearly, decreasing fat thickness (P = .04), liver abscess (P = .02), and yield grade (P = .13). Results suggest that WCGF can substitute up to 25 or 50% of dietary DM without negative effects on feedlot performance, digestibility of nutrients, or carcass characteristics. In addition, restricting feeding during growing may be strategy that improves the utilization of WCGF at these levels.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed1998

Evaluation of the ovine callipyge locus: II. Genotypic effects on growth, slaughter, and carcass traits.

A resource flock of 362 F2 lambs provided phenotypic and genotypic data to estimate effects of callipyge (CLPG) genotypes on growth, slaughter, and carcass traits. Lambs were serially slaughtered in six groups at 3-wk intervals starting at 23 wk of age to allow comparisons at different end points. Probabilities of CLPG genotypes were calculated at a position 86 cM from the most centromeric marker of chromosome 18. A contrast of CLPG genotypic effects, based on the paternal polar overdominance model, was used to evaluate callipyge and normal phenotypes. Relationships of traits with slaughter age, carcass weight, or 12th-rib fat depth for callipyge and normal phenotypic groups were estimated by regression. Callipyge and normal lambs did not differ for growth traits measured from birth to slaughter. Callipyge lambs produced 55.9% of live weight as chilled carcass weight compared with 51.7% for normal lambs at the same mean live weight of 48.32 kg. Lighter pelt, kidney-pelvic fat, and liver weights contributed to this advantage of callipyge lambs for dressing percentage (P < .001). Estimated accretion rates of carcass protein at the mean slaughter age were 12.5 and 10.2 g/d for callipyge and normal carcasses, respectively. Corresponding values for carcass fat were 35.2 and 42.1 g/d. Compositional differences in favor of callipyge carcasses were detected at constant values of slaughter age, carcass weight, and 12th-rib fat depth. Callipyge carcasses had 2.56 kg greater fat-free lean and 1.39 kg less fat than normal carcasses at the same mean age of 214.9 d (P < .001). The majority of these differences were established before the initial group was slaughtered and were maintained as age increased. Callipyge carcasses consisted of 24.3% fat and 71.3% fat-free lean, compared with 31.5 and 64.0% for normal carcasses at 25.6 kg of carcass weight. When evaluated at .49 cm of 12th-rib fat depth, callipyge lambs were 15.4 d older and produced 4.1 kg heavier carcasses with 4.3% less fat (P < .001). Effects of CLPG genotypic groups on carcass composition were greater than virtually all reported breed substitution effects. Use of the CLPG mutant allele in structured mating systems can dramatically increase production of lean lamb.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2002

Effect of high temperature and low-protein diets on the performance of growing-finishing pigs.

The effects of reducing CP level in combination with an increase in ambient temperature (29 vs 22 degrees C) on performance and carcass composition were studied in a factorial arrangement of treatments involving 66 Piétrain x (Landrace x Large White) barrows from 27 to 100 kg BW. Animals were fed at each temperature one of three experimental diets that provided 0.85 or 0.70 g of digestible lysine per megajoule of NE, in the growing (27 to 65 kg) and the finishing (65 to 100 kg) phases, respectively. Diet 1 was a corn, wheat, and soybean meal diet formulated without crystalline AA; CP levels were 20.3 and 17.6% for the growing and the finishing phases, respectively. In Diets 2 and 3, CP level was reduced by substituting part of the soybean meal with corn and wheat (Diet 2), or with corn, wheat, and 4% fat (Diet 3). Diets 2 and 3 were supplemented with AA and balanced according to the ideal protein concept. The CP levels of Diets 2 and 3 were, respectively, 15.8 and 16.3% in the growing phase, and 13.4 and 13.8% in the finishing phase. Pigs were housed individually and had free access to feed and water. The ADFI was measured daily, and animals were weighed weekly. Carcass composition was measured at slaughter (100 kg BW). Increasing ambient temperature from 22 to 29 degrees C resulted in a 15% reduction in ADFI and 13% lower ADG. Leaner carcasses (P < 0.01) were obtained at 29 degrees C (22.8 vs 24.8% carcass fat). At 22 degrees C, ADFI was lower (P < 0.05) for the low-CP diets, but daily NE intake, ADG, and carcass composition were not affected (P > 0.05). At 29 degrees C, ADFI was not different (P > 0.05) between diets and daily NE intake was higher (P < 0.05) with Diet 3 than with Diet 1, and the difference was more important during the finishing period than during the growing period. Using the model ADFI = a BWb, estimates of b were 0.65, 0.53, and 0.53 at 22 degrees C and 0.50, 0.44, and 0.50 at 29 degrees C, for Diets 1, 2, and 3, respectively. The higher NE intake for Diet 3 at 29 degrees C did not improve ADG (P > 0.05) but increased mainly fat deposition. These results indicate that a 4 percentage unit reduction of dietary CP level reduces N excretion (minus 37%) but does not affect growth and carcass composition as long as the ratio between essential AA and NE are kept optimal. In addition, diets with reduced CP limit the effect of high ambient temperature on ADFI. Finally, our results demonstrate the significance of using NE, rather than DE or ME, for formulating diets.

Amino Acids↗
PubMed1987

Deficient amino acids in protein of dehulled soybean meal for young turkeys.

Two 12-day experiments were conducted with Large White turkeys to determine which amino acids are deficient in a diet containing dehulled soybean meal as the sole source of protein. A 22% protein basal diet composed of 43.3% glucose monohydrate, 45.4% dehulled soybean meal, .5% DL-methionine, 6% stabilized fat, and added minerals and vitamins served as the negative control. Two positive control diets were formed by substituting either 16.5% dehulled soybean meal or a mixture containing amounts of essential amino acids equivalent to those in the added dehulled soybean meal in place of an equal amount of glucose monohydrate in the basal diet. Nine additional diets were formed by removing one or more amino acids from the mixture. Each of the 12 diets in a block design was fed to two pens of males and two pens of females with 8 birds per pen from 7 to 19 days of age in each experiment. Average body weight gain of poults fed the 22% protein diet with added amino acids approached that of poults fed the 30% protein diet (288 vs. 300 g, respectively). Removal of the amino acid mixture from the 22% protein diet depressed body weight gain by 19.0%. Depressions of 19, 16, 11, 7, and 6% in body weight gains resulted from the removal of valine, threonine, lysine, phenylalanine (or tyrosine or glycine), and isoleucine, respectively. A decrease of 5% was required for significance (P less than or equal to .05). When evaluated by this deletion technique, effects of valine and threonine deficiency were more pronounced than effects of lysine deficiency in dehulled soybean meal for young turkeys.

Amino Acids↗
PubMed1999

Improvement of muscle protein functionality in processed meats by magnesium and other divalent chloride salts.

Concern over dietary fat in processed meats led to the passage of the '40 per cent' rule in the United States. Substitution of NaCl, linked to hypertension, with divalent chloride salts such as MgCl2 and CaCl2 has shown limited success. Early studies showed that these divalent salts had a deleterious effect on the functional properties of meat when used at product levels that resulted in high aqueous phase ionic strengths (0.4-0.6). However, our research focus has been to determine the utility of low levels (0.05 per cent) of MgCl2, CaCl2 and ZnCl2 in improving the functional properties of processed meats. Effects of divalent salts have been evaluated in turkey breast and thigh minces, beef model systems, and frankfurter formulations containing heart muscle. To determine if time postmortem affects muscle's response to divalent cations, salts were added to broiler thigh muscle in the early postmortem period. The important findings were (1) MgCl2 increased myosin solubility, (2) CaCl2 enhanced gel forming ability in cooked batters, and (3) ZnCl2 dramatically decreased myosin solubility in the absence of food-grade phosphate (sodium tripolyphosphate).

Actins↗