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PubMed2006

The Postpartum Support Questionnaire: psychometric properties in adolescents.

PROBLEM: Receiving adequate social support has been associated with positive outcomes for the postpartum adolescent and her baby. Therefore, social support is an important variable to include in research studies of postpartum adolescents. However, instruments developed for use in adults cannot be assumed to reliably and validly measure health-related concepts such as social support in adolescents (Rogler, 1999; Yarcheski, Mahon, & Yarcheski, 1992) without psychometric evaluation. PURPOSE: Therefore, the purpose of this study was to describe the reliability and validity of the Postpartum Support Questionnaire (PSQ) (Logsdon, 2002; Logsdon, Usui, Birkimer, McBride, 1996) with adolescents. METHOD: The PSQ was revised for use with adolescents, based upon focus groups with adolescents and professionals. Then, the PSQ was administered to a convenience sample of postpartum adolescents (N = 109) recruited from the Teenage Parent Program. FINDINGS: High internal consistency reliability was demonstrated for the total instrument and subscales. Factor analysis supported four factors, in line with the PSQ data with adults, with some indication for an additional adolescent factor. However, in adolescents material support and emotional support tend to load on the same factor. CONCLUSIONS: Social support may be defined differently in postpartum adolescents, but further research with a larger sample is needed to substantiate this finding. Instruments with psychometric data specific to adolescents should be chosen by researchers who study this group.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Adolescent contraception: survey of attitudes and practice of health professionals.

In Nigeria, there is a persistent reluctance to provide adolescents with contraceptives and this is based largely on the premise that the culture does not support pre-marital sexual activity. However, several studies have revealed that a large number of adolescents are experiencing early sexual debut, some as early as 13 years. Furthermore, mortality resulting from termination of unwanted pregnancies is on the increase among Nigerian adolescents. The aim of this study is to assess the attitudes and practice of health workers in Ibadan regarding adolescent contraception. A structured questionnaire was administered to 735 health workers in selected hospitals and health facilities in Ibadan, Nigeria. Information relating to their practice and attitudes towards adolescent contraception was sought. The results revealed that while 58.9% of the respondents had counselled adolescents, only 30.7% had ever prescribed contraceptives for them. Among health workers that approved of family planning, 52.6% were favourably disposed to adolescent contraception while 23.9% were not. We observed that 40.2% of health workers that did not approve of family planning are not favourably disposed to adolescent contraception. Health workers who counsel adolescents on the use of contraceptives are more likely than those who do not to approve of its use. In addition, those who approve of family planning are 12 times more than those who do not, to have a favourable disposition to adolescent contraception. Perhaps, if providers are more receptive to adolescent contraception, the services will be more accessible to those who are sexually active. This will, no doubt, stem the incidence of unwanted pregnancies in our community.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Adolescents anticipated experience of screening for genital herpes.

Screening asymptomatic adolescents for genital herpes will require sensitivity to adolescents' developmental needs. Twenty-four adolescents (age range 1619 years) were interviewed to explore their perceptions of screening. In general, adolescents thought screening for genital herpes would be viewed as taking care of themselves, although there were concerns that their peers might view getting screened as implying that the adolescent was infected or sexually promiscuous. Most adolescents expected their parents to respond positively, but typically thought that younger adolescents should obtain parental consent for screening, and that adolescents should inform their parents of positive test results. Adolescents wanted to be screened in settings that provided confidentiality and by non-judgemental care providers, but they differed on the setting which they believed would accomplish this. Some recommended mass screening (for example, screening all of those in a certain year at school), presumably as a way to reduce embarrassment and/or stigma. Screening programmes that are adolescent-friendly and accessible, and address adolescents' specific concerns regarding managing the information, can be created.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1990

Initial parenting attitudes of pregnant adolescents and a comparison with the decision about adoption.

The Adult-Adolescent Parenting Inventory was used to examine the initial parenting attitudes of a sample of pregnant adolescents. In addition, the attitudes about parenting were correlated with the decision of the adolescent to either keep or place the baby for adoption. Pregnant adolescents scored significantly lower on the "expectations for children" construct than all groups of controls. They scored significantly higher than adolescent controls on the "empathy" construct but lower than the adult controls. On the "corporal punishment" construct, they scored significantly lower than nonabused adolescent controls but were similar to abused adolescent controls. On the "role-reversal" construct, they scored significantly higher than abused adolescent controls, lower than adult controls, and about the same as nonabused adolescent controls. Adolescents who placed their babies had significantly lower scores on the role-reversal measure, but the differences between keepers and placers on the expectations, empathy, and corporal punishment dimensions were not significant. The results are discussed in terms of (1) the areas where attitudes about parenting are below appropriate levels, (2) the possibility of competent teenage mothers, and (3) the groundwork necessary for preparing adolescents for parenthood should they elect to keep their babies.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1985

Adolescent pregnancy: critical review for the clinician.

Adolescent pregnancy is a major health and socioeconomic problem with unique medical and psychosocial consequences for the patient and society. Consequently, it demands our attention and understanding of the problem and its causative factors. Survey data have documented that a majority of adolescents are sexually active, and that currently, almost 1 in 10 adolescents become pregnant each year. Over the last 2 decades, comprehensive adolescent pregnancy programs have shown that the high frequency of adverse obstetric and neonatal outcomes are closely associated with low socioeconomic status, poor prenatal nutrition and general health, and chemical use, but not maternal age. These adverse medical consequences and the psychosocial problem of the parents and infant are treatable with programs that adapt to the patient population and provide extensive support, education, and counseling in addition to continuity obstetric care initiated early in the pregnancy. One of the greatest needs of the adolescent is a competent and caring adult to serve as an advocate to guarantee access to medical and support services. To this end, responsible and qualified professionals who can relate to adolescents should resume this role in the coordination of a comprehensive care approach. This approach will not only reduce the medical risks associated with adolescent pregnancy, but it will decrease the number of repeat teenage pregnancies, promote school retention, increase compliance with health care regimens for the parent and child, and stimulate personal growth and development. All communities should develop programs to promote optimal medical care, psychosocial support, necessary financial support, and accessible education, since adolescent pregnancy occurs in all social, racial, ethnic, and economic groups in all parts of our country. Finally, the role of the adolescent father should be continually emphasized as a potential source of support to the adolescent mother and their infant and a stabilizer in the teenage family unit. In accord with such emphasis, recognition should be afforded to the psychologic and interpersonal needs of the adolescent father.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The Adolescent Family Life Program as a prevention measure.

Adolescent pregnancy and parenthood remain a source of considerable concern, not only due to the well-documented adverse consequences of teenage pregnancy, but also because of certain trends that emerged during the seventies. Survey results showed a dramatic upsurge in premarital sexual activity, while pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases rose. Out-of-wedlock births also increased. The Adolescent Family Life Program is a new Federal Government effort to deal with the resultant complex of problems.THE PROGRAM HAS TWO MAJOR THRUSTS: (a) preventing adolescent pregnancies by emphasizing the strategy of reaching adolescents before they become sexually active and (b) preventing various negative consequences of pregnancy that often occur among adolescent parents and their off spring. The Program is funding projects that demonstrate and evaluate innovative services in order to obtain knowledge about what works best under given circumstances in both instances. Later, proven models will be made available for adaptation by local communities.Education about the responsibilities of sexuality and parenting will be among the prevention services encouraged in the funded projects. Care services to parenting adolescents include pre and postnatal care, nutrition counseling, continuing education, and vocational services.Through its research component, the Adolescent Family Life Program also has the potential for contributing to an understanding of how to prevent adolescent pregnancies and their adverse consequences. Research projects may encompass the causes and consequences of adolescent sexual relations, use of contraceptives, pregnancy, and child-rearing.Family involvement is a consistent theme in all efforts of the Adolescent Family Life Program. It is anticipated that results of the projects funded by the Program will illuminate ways to incorporate the family into a successful partnership aimed at preventing the problems of adolescent pregnancy.

Abortion, Induced↗
PubMed1998

Delayed first pregnancy among African-American adolescent smokers.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to compare rates of adolescent pregnancy among African-American adolescents who began smoking as adolescents with those who did not. METHODS: Cross-sectional data on 1042 primiparous African-American women enrolled in a randomized clinical trial of nurse home visitation were examined. The independent variable, adolescent smoking, was defined as a report of smoking before the age of 18 years. The outcome variable was adolescent pregnancy, defined as first pregnancy before the age of 18 years. Logistic regression was used to control for potential confounders. RESULTS: After adjustments for drug use, use of contraception, frequency of coitus, and sexually transmitted diseases, women who smoked during adolescence had a 50% lower risk of becoming pregnant as an adolescent [odds ratio of 0.46 (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.27-0.76)]. When time to first pregnancy was examined as a continuous variable, adolescent smoking was associated with a delay in pregnancy of 22.6 months (95% CI 16.8-29.2). CONCLUSIONS: Teen smoking appears to be associated with a significantly lower rate of adolescent pregnancy among African-Americans. Although the nature of this relationship is unclear, this finding suggests the need for linkage between smoking prevention and adolescent pregnancy prevention.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1999

Characteristics and outcomes of adolescent pregnancies in Kaohsiung County, Taiwan.

Adolescent pregnancy is a burgeoning problem in Taiwan. This descriptive epidemiologic study was designed to compare the prenatal characteristics and birth outcomes of adolescent and adult primigravidas. The adolescent primigravidas included 215 mothers (younger adolescents) younger than 18 years of age and 341 mothers aged 18 or 19 years, who registered a live birth in Kaohsiung County from June 1994 to May 1995. The control group consisted of 590 adult primigravidas including 290 mothers aged 20 to 24 years and 300 mothers aged 25 years or older, who registered a live birth in January or February 1995. Prenatally, adolescent primigravidas tended to have later awareness of their pregnancy, later first prenatal visits, fewer total prenatal visits, and less parental support than adults. In addition, adolescents had higher rates of unintended pregnancy, prenatal morbidity, and smoking, and were more often the victims of physical abuse by male partners. The cesarean section rate increased with maternal age, from 21% in younger adolescents to 39.7% in women aged 25 years or above. Potentially inadequate (< 12 kg) weight gain and short duration of breast feeding (< 1 month) were significantly more common in adolescents than in adults. There were no significant differences in birth weight, infant mortality, or postpartum maternal or neonatal morbidity before hospital discharge between the two groups. This study shows that adolescent primigravidas had more adverse prenatal characteristics and less maternal weight gain during gestation. Most of the adverse characteristics and outcomes of adolescent pregnancy found in this study are similar to those reported in Western countries.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1988

Family functioning of adolescents who parent and place for adoption.

While an extensive body of knowledge on adolescent sexual behavior and outcome has developed, current sociological and psychological studies of adolescents who place their babies for adoption are scant, often with inconclusive results. The level of family of origin functioning of adolescent parents and placers is even less frequently studied. This cross-sectional study of 84 adolescents attending an alternative high school for pregnant girls who recently made a placement or parenting decision assesses the family environment of teenagers in order to provide a broader understanding of these characteristics, which would assist practitioners in provision of services to this population. Using FACES II as the measure of family cohesion and adaptability, it was hypothesized that: (1) adolescent parents or placers would describe their families as being less functional than adolescent norms, (2) adolescents who placed their children for adoption would describe their families as being more functional than adolescents who parented their children, and (3) adolescents from the more functional families would report greater satisfaction with the placement decision than those from less functional families. Results indicate that Hypothesis 1 was supported, but contrary to Hypothesis 2, there were no significant differences in family functioning between placers and parents. Also, when comparing the discrepancy between adolescents' current and ideal family descriptions, no between-group differences were found. Because the vast majority of the respondents were satisfied with their placement or parenting decision, Hypothesis 3 also was not supported. Research needs and practice applications stemming from this study are discussed.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1995

Adolescent pregnancy in Europe.

The International Federation of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology surveyed physicians from 11 European countries to ascertain the countries' adolescent pregnancy and abortion rates. Pregnancy rates tended to remain stable or decrease through the 1980s, with some notable exceptions. Germany, Federal Republic exhibited the highest adolescent pregnancy rates; the rate increased from 16% to 21% among 16- to 18-year-olds from 1985 to 1987, and then decreased to 13% by 1989. The United Kingdom had the second highest rate of adolescent pregnancy, although in the 16- to 18-year-old group, the rate decreased from 9.1% in 1985 to 8.6% by 1989. The Netherlands and Denmark had the lowest adolescent pregnancy rates, with a cumulative total of 0.9% in both countries for adolescents under age 18 years in 1985 and 1987; data for 1989 were not available at the time of the survey. Abortion rates among adolescents--expressed as a percentage of the total number of abortions performed in each country--increased in most countries during the 1980s. By 1989, Hungary and Finland had the highest abortion rates, 11% and 9.5%, respectively. Belgium had the lowest rate; only 1% of abortions performed were in women aged 18 years and younger. Most of the countries included in this survey require parental consent for termination of pregnancy. Although the medical complications of pregnancy and birth in adolescents can be minimized with good management and follow-up, the social and psychological implications continue to take a toll. Sex-education programs are one means of reducing the rate of adolescent pregnancy. For adolescents who do become pregnant, however, psychological and social support must be provided in addition to medical care.

Abortion, Induced↗
PubMed2006

Differences in the social consequences of ethanol emerge during the course of adolescence in rats: social facilitation, social inhibition, and anxiolysis.

The present experiments explored social consequences of ethanol during adolescence by examining dose-dependent ethanol-induced social facilitation and inhibition in a non-anxiogenic (familiar) environment, and ethanol-related anxiolysis in an anxiogenic (unfamiliar) environment in early (P28) and late (P42) adolescent rats. Pronounced age-related differences in the social consequences of ethanol emerged during the course of adolescence, with early adolescents being uniquely sensitive to activating effects of low doses of ethanol when tested in the familiar context in terms of play fighting-an adolescent-characteristic form of social interactions, but conversely less sensitive than late adolescents to ethanol-associated social suppression when tested at higher ethanol doses in this context. Early adolescents were also less sensitive than late adolescents to the anxiolytic effects of ethanol revealed in the unfamiliar test situation, when indexed in terms of increases in social investigation and the ethanol-induced transformation of social avoidance into social preference. Anti-anxiety properties of ethanol were found to be sex-dependent in older animals, with late adolescent females being more sensitive to ethanol anxiolysis than their male counterparts. Considerable ontogenetic differences in the social consequences of ethanol are evident even within the adolescent period, with early adolescence being a time of particularly pronounced adolescent-typical sensitivities to ethanol.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2006

Chronic tolerance to the social consequences of ethanol in adolescent and adult Sprague-Dawley rats.

Adolescence is a time when experimentation with ethanol becomes normative, with high levels of use becoming apparent in some adolescents. Little is known, however, as to whether ethanol adaptations emerging in adolescents with repeated ethanol use are similar to those emerging in adults. The presents study used a rodent model to investigate the development of chronic tolerance to ethanol-induced alterations in social behavior. The study focused both on ethanol-induced social facilitations, typically evident in adolescents but not adult animals at low doses of ethanol, as well as the inhibition of social behavior occurring at higher doses in both adolescent and adult rats. Adolescent and adult male and female Sprague-Dawley rats were injected intraperitoneally with either isotonic saline or 1 g/kg ethanol for 7 consecutive days: postnatal day (P) 27-33 for adolescents and P62-68 for adults. Acute effects of ethanol (0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, and 1 g/kg) on social behavior, social motivation (measured in terms of social preference), and locomotor activity were assessed 48 h after the last chronic exposure using a modified social interaction test in a familiar environment. Adolescents chronically exposed to ethanol developed tolerance to ethanol-induced social facilitation. Animals of both ages likewise developed chronic tolerance to ethanol-induced social inhibition. Metabolic tolerance emerged in adults, as indexed by a decrease in blood ethanol concentrations after chronic ethanol at this age, whereas only functional tolerance was evident in adolescents. Unexpectedly, chronic ethanol diminished baseline levels of social preference in adolescents, but made them more responsive to ethanol-induced enhancement of social preference. Chronic ethanol exposure in adulthood, however, only induced tolerance to the suppressing effects of higher ethanol doses on social preference. Thus, whereas adolescents and adult both develop adaptations following repeated exposure to ethanol, adolescents are more vulnerable to the disruptive effects of chronic ethanol exposure on social preference than their more mature counterparts.

Aging↗
PubMed2003

Treatment of alcohol use disorders in adolescents.

The treatment of alcohol use disorders (AUDs) in adolescents is a very important issue in the field of substance use disorders; however, it is a complex and understudied area in which there are limited data concerning evidence-based treatment. The authors first briefly review the epidemiology of AUDs in adolescents, describe existing guidelines for the treatment of such disorders in adolescent patients, and consider differences between AUDs as they present in adolescents and adults. In the next section of the paper, the authors review the assessment and diagnosis of AUDs in adolescents and consider how findings from such assessments will influence subsequent treatment planning. They also describe prognostic factors (e.g., family issues, socioeconomic factors, psychiatric comorbidity, gender, ability to form a therapeutic alliance) that may affect treatment outcome and need to be considered in treatment selection. The various settings in which adolescent AUDs may be treated and the types of patients and situations for which each is most appropriate are described. The second half of the article focuses on the treatment of adolescents with AUDs. The authors describe techniques for establishing abstinence and then preventing subsequent relapse. Although there is an interest in the use of medications (e.g., naltrexone) to treat AUDs in this population, there are unfortunately few if any data concerning the use of these agents in adolescent patients. More data are available concerning psychosocial treatments. The authors describe a variety of psychosocial modalities that have been tested in adolescents, including individual psychotherapy (e.g., interpersonal therapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy, motivational enhancement therapy), group therapies, 12 step/self-help programs, family therapy, skills training for parents, and psychoeducation. The authors then consider the importance of targeting comorbid psychiatric conditions, especially anxiety and depression, in the treatment of AUDs in adolescents. The authors stress the importance of being aware that adolescents with AUDs are at increased risk for violence against self or others and suicide. They also note that practitioners who work with adolescents with AUDs often need to deal with forensic issues (e.g., DUI charges).

Journal Article↗
PubMed2003

Use of indoor tanning facilities by white adolescents in the United States.

CONTEXT: Indoor tanning is a risk factor for skin cancer, but the population-based prevalence of this behavior among adolescents is not clearly known. OBJECTIVES: To describe the prevalence of tanning booth use among white US adolescents and to assess its association with sociodemographic factors, health behaviors, and appearance. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: A nationally representative sample of 6903 non-Hispanic white adolescents, aged 13 to 19 years, who participated in Wave II (between April 1, 1996, and August 31, 1996) of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Frequency of lifetime use of indoor artificial tanning facilities. RESULTS: With the data weighted to national levels, 36.8% of the white female adolescents and 11.2% of the white male adolescents have used a tanning booth at least once in their life, while 28.1% and 6.9% of the female and male adolescents, respectively, reported tanning booth use 3 or more times. The percentage of female adolescents using tanning booths 3 or more times increased with age, from 11.2% of the 13- to 14-year-olds to 47.0% of 18- to 19-year-olds and also increased with greater tanning ability, from 12.6% of the poor tanners to 38.1% of those with a strong tan response. After multivariate adjustment, those residing in the Midwest (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 2.38; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.53-3.68) or South (aOR, 2.91; 95% CI, 1.89-4.53), attending a rural high school (aOR, 1.80; 95% CI, 1.09-2.98), and reporting the use of 2 or 3 substances (aOR, 3.06; 95% CI, 2.44-3.82) were more likely to use indoor tanning facilities, as were dieters (aOR, 1.26; 95% CI, 1.01-1.57) regardless of their body mass index. Decreased odds of indoor tanning were observed among those with a college-educated mother (aOR, 0.68; 95% CI, 0.51-0.90) and greater cognitive ability (per 10-point score increase; aOR, 0.89; 95% CI, 0.82-0.96) while routine participation in physical activity significantly lowered the odds of indoor tanning only among female adolescents. CONCLUSIONS: Indoor tanning is prevalent, particularly among female adolescents, and aligns with other risk behaviors, appearance-related factors, and intentional sunbathing. The risks of artificial tanning need increased emphasis among adolescents, especially in the Midwest and South where extremes in the availability of natural light appear to send intentional tanners indoors.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

Young adolescents' comfort with discussion about sexual problems with their physician.

OBJECTIVE: To identify factors associated with young adolescents' sense of comfort about discussing sexual problems with their physician. DESIGN: Confidential, assisted self-report questionnaires on physician-adolescent communication developed by the investigators and completed by participants at visits for general health examinations. SETTING: Five primary care pediatric practices at health maintenance organizations in Washington, DC. PATIENTS: A consecutive sample of all adolescents 12 to 15 years old who received a general health examination. Of 412 eligible patients, 221 received parental consent and participated. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Adolescents' sense of comfort about talking to their physician about a sexually transmitted disease or some other sexual problem. This outcome was chosen for a substudy of a larger longitudinal prevention trial. RESULTS: Most adolescents valued their physicians' opinions about sex (89%) and said it was easy to talk to the physician during their visit (99%), but about half said they would be uncomfortable talking to the physician if they had a sexually transmitted disease or some other sexual problem (43%) [corrected]. Adolescents' sense of comfort was greater when physicians discussed sexual issues in the general health examination, adolescents perceived their personal risk of sexually transmitted disease to be high, adolescents had high self-esteem, and physicians were adolescents' usual physicians. CONCLUSIONS: This study emphasizes the need for physicians to discuss sexual risks with young adolescents and suggests ways physicians can help young adolescents feel more comfortable talking with them about sexual concerns.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Alcohol advertising in magazines and adolescent readership.

CONTEXT: Adolescent drinking is a major public health concern. The federal government does not restrict alcohol advertising to adolescents, but relies on the alcohol industry for self-regulation. OBJECTIVES: To investigate recent alcohol advertising in magazines and to determine whether advertising frequency is associated with adolescent readership. DESIGN, SETTING, AND SUBJECTS: All alcohol advertisements were counted that appeared from 1997-2001 in 35 of 48 major US magazines, which tracked their adolescent readership (3 refused all alcohol advertisements; and advertisement counts were unavailable for 10). Variation was assessed in the advertisement placement frequency for each major category of alcohol (beer, wine and wine coolers, and distilled liquor) by a magazine's adolescent readership (age 12-19 years), young adult readership (age 20-24 years), and older adult readership (age > or =25 years); readership demographics (sex, race, and income); year; frequency of publication; and cost per advertisement. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Variation in alcohol advertising frequency by adolescent readership. RESULTS: Adolescent readership ranged from 1.0 to 7.1 million. The alcohol industry placed 9148 advertisements at a cost of 696 million dollars. Of the 9148 advertisements, 1201 (13%) were for beer, 443 (5%) for wine, and 7504 (82%) for liquor. After adjustment for other magazine characteristics, the advertisement rate ratio was 1.6 times more for beer (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.0-2.6; P =.05) and liquor (95% CI, 1.1-2.3; P =.01) for every additional million adolescent readers. Wine industry advertising was not associated with adolescent readership. CONCLUSIONS: Magazine advertising by the beer and liquor industries is associated with adolescent readership. Industry and federal policymakers should examine ways to regulate advertising that reaches large numbers of adolescents.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Changes in adolescents' and mothers' autonomy and connectedness in conflict discussions: an observation study.

Behaviour in conflicts in 76 dyads of mothers and their 11-16-year-old adolescents was observed twice in a 2-year interval. In concordance with individuation theory (Youniss and Smollar, 1985, Adolescent relations with mothers, fathers and friends. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press), we found an increase across assessments in adolescents' autonomy. In accordance with Steinberg's (1990, At the Threshold: The Developing Adolescent, Feldman, S. and Elliott, G. (Eds). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, pp. 255-276) developmental theory, we observed a decrease of connectedness with their mothers in younger adolescents and an increase of connectedness in older adolescents. Changes in mothers' connectedness with their children paralleled the changes in adolescents, but only the increase of connectedness of mothers of older adolescents was statistically significant. Higher levels of connectedness were observed in mother-daughter than in mother-son dyads. In addition, female adolescents were more successful in changing their mothers' position than their male age-peers. As decreases in connectedness were moderate, it is still true that some connectedness between adolescents and parents is maintained across adolescence, as suggested by individuation theory.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1991

The family and the unemployed adolescent.

The present study explores the relationship between adolescent unemployment and family functioning. Adolescents and their parents completed the Family Adaptability and Evaluation Scales (FACES III) initially when the adolescents were in the final year of compulsory schooling, and then again at yearly intervals for 2 years. During this time the adolescents had either returned to school, or become employed or unemployed. Differences in perceptions according to employment group of the adolescent were found for both adolescents and their parents, highlighting the effect of an unemployed adolescent on adolescent and parent perceptions of family functioning. Unemployed adolescents and their parents saw the family as less cohesive at all three times of the study. Parents of employed and unemployed adolescents wanted more cohesion, as did unemployed males and females, and employed males. Greater dissatisfaction about family cohesion was expressed by unemployed adolescents and their parents than by the other groups.

Adolescent↗