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PubMed2004

The Russian biological weapons program: vanished or disappeared?

The legacy and arsenal of biological weapons Russia inherited from USSR in 1991 became a lingering unsolved issue, in terms of a prime strategic arm that ought to be eliminated, advisably, in accordance with the Biological Weapons Convention Russia is committed to, and considering further undertakings and declarations made by the Russian regime. Indeed, that inheritance was created by USSR as a powerful, highly sophisticated component of utmost importance within the Soviet military paradigm, based on a wide spectrum of virulent, stabilized pathogens and toxins plus delivery systems. Moreover, remarkably advanced biotechnologies were thus applied to procure stockpiles of military-grade pathogens and toxins. Yet, an intriguing debate aroused with regard to the extent of the weaponized biological inventory accumulated by USSR, as well as the in effect attitude of Russia towards perpetuating or wiping out that inheritance. It turned out to form a far reaching and challenging complexity, both strategically and scientifically. The present study concentrates on the strategic as well as scientific spheres shaping that overall issue at large, attempting to thoroughly analyze it through an innovative methodology. One main conclusion thereby reached at is that the Russian military still poses a potential menance, in terms of both stockpiled, probably deployable biological weapons, and prevailing production capacities.

Biological Warfare↗
PubMed2006

Re-evaluating Russia's biological weapons policy, as reflected in the Criminal Code and Official Admissions: insubordination leading to a president's subordination.

Half-heartedly acknowledged by the Russian Federation, the Soviet Union ran the world's largest offensive program for biological weapons, breaching the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention. Russia criminalized biological weapons in 1993 only to decriminalize them in 1996, but in 2003 president Putin partly recriminalized them. None of these changes were declared within the Convention. Several well-known official statements, when reviewed in their context, turned out to admit to neither an offensive program nor a breach of the Convention. Thus, the Russian biological weapons policy is more ambiguous than usually depicted, and various policy shapers can be discerned.

Anthrax↗
PubMed1998

Preventing the misuse of microorganisms: the role of the American Society for Microbiology in protecting against biological weapons.

The American Society for Microbiology's (ASM) involvement with issues surrounding biological weapons began during World War II and continues to the present time. The Public and Scientific Affairs Board (PSAB) of the ASM has played an important role in monitoring and responding to legislative and regulatory issues involving biological weapons. As this review makes apparent, there is no consensus of opinion among scientists on their role in biological defense research, or is it likely that there will ever be complete agreement. There is consensus that steps should be taken to prevent biological warfare and that openness of scientific research and global surveillance of disease outbreaks can significantly increase transparency for detecting development of biological weapons. The ASM recommends increased attention to and efforts directed toward global surveillance of disease outbreaks, not only to aid public health organizations in improving human health, but also to establish baseline data against which unusual disease outbreaks can be assessed. Issues of how best to increase global security and to achieve a scientifically based verification protocol of the Biological Weapons Convention are important and continue to be addressed by the ASM.

Biological Warfare↗
PubMed1998

The medical threat of biological weapons.

There is a heightened threat of biological weapons being used for biological warfare or bioterrorism. Many of the microorganisms and toxins that may be used as such biological weapons can easily be acquired and mass produced. Dissemination of aerosols of these biological agents can produce mass casualties. If used by a terrorist they may overwhelm our current public health system. Some biological agents, such as Bacillus anthracis (anthrax) and botulinum toxin, are considered far more likely than others to be used as biological weapons; smallpox virus was apparently produced in mass quantities by the former Soviet Union and may also be a serious threat. The release of such agents could go undetected for several hours or days and would be followed by mass illnesses and a first line of response by the public health community. Rapid epidemiological investigation to identify the nature of the disease outbreak would be critical for limiting casualties. For many, but not all, biological agents there are medical treatments that can greatly lower the mortality rate. There currently are, however, insufficient supplies of medicinals and trained personnel to cope with a massive bioterrorist or biological warfare use of biological weapons. Increasing our preparedness is critical.

Bacterial Infections↗
PubMedDate not supplied

An overview of the future of non-lethal weapons.

During the past decade, vast changes have occurred in the geopolitical landscape and the nature of the types of conflicts in which technologically developed countries have been involved. While the threat of conventional war remains, forces have been more frequently deployed in situations that require great restraint. Adversaries are often likely to be elusive and commingled with noncombatants. There has been some shift in public opinion away from tolerance of collateral casualties. Therefore there is a need to be able to apply force while limiting casualties. Non-lethal weapons provide part of the solution. Among the changes that will influence the future have been studies by the US and NATO concerning the use of non-lethal weapons, coincidental with increased funding for their development and testing. New concepts and policies have recently been formalized. Surprisingly, the most strident objections to the implementation of non-lethal weapons have come from organizations that are ostensibly designed to protect non-combatants. These arguments are specious and, while technically and academically challenging, actually serve to foster an environment that will result in the deaths of many more innocent civilians. They misconstrue technology with human intent. The reasons for use of force will not abate. Alternatives to bombs, missiles, tanks and artillery must therefore be found. Non-lethal weapons are not a panacea but do offer the best hope of minimizing casualties while allowing nations or alliances the means to use force in protection of national or regional interests.

Behavior↗
PubMed2006

The weapon potential of human pathogenic fungi.

With the exception of Coccidioides spp., human pathogenic fungi are not found among lists of microbes with potential for biological warfare and bioterrorism against humans. However, many human pathogenic fungi are easily obtainable from the environment, are highly dispersible and can cause significant disease after inhalation with relatively low inocula. When the biological and pathogenic attributes of certain human pathogenic fungi are considered using a formula for calculating the relative weapon potential of a microbe it is as apparent that some organisms such as Coccidioides spp. are comparable to other microbes for which there is significant concern. Our analysis suggests that the current indifference to fungi as potential biological weapons against human populations is probably a perception engendered by their non-communicability, lack of history of use or development as biological weapons, and a relatively low incidence of symptomatic disease following natural infection. Awareness of the weapon potential of human pathogenic fungi is an important consideration for greater preparedness against the threat posed by biowarfare and bioterrorism.

Biological Warfare↗
PubMed1999

Effect of type and transfer of conventional weapons on civilian injuries: retrospective analysis of prospective data from Red Cross hospitals.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the link between different weapons used in modern wars and their potential to injury civilians. DESIGN: Retrospective analysis of prospectively collected data about hospital admissions. SETTING: Hospitals of the International Committee of the Red Cross. SUBJECTS: 18 877 people wounded by bullets, fragmentation munitions, or mines. Of these, 2012 had been admitted to the hospital in Kabul within six hours of injury. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Age and sex of wounded people according to cause of injury and whether they were civilians (women and girls, boys under 16 years old, or men of 50 or more). RESULTS: 18.7% of those injured by bullets, 34.1% of those injured by fragments, and 30.8% of those injured by mines were civilians. Of those admitted to the Red Cross hospital in Kabul within six hours of injury, 39.1% of those injured by bullets, 60.6% of those injured by fragments, and 55.0% of those injured by mines were civilians. CONCLUSIONS: The proportion of civilians injured differs between weapon systems. The higher proportion injured by fragments and mines is explicable in terms of the military efficiency of weapons, the distance between user and victim, and the effect that the kind of weapon has on the psychology of the user.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1998

Air weapon fatalities.

AIMS: To describe characteristics of a series of people accidentally and deliberately killed by air powered weapons. METHODS: Five cases of fatal airgun injury were identified by forensic pathologists and histopathologists. The circumstances surrounding the case, radiological examination, and pathological findings are described. The weapon characteristics are also reported. RESULTS: Three of the victims were adult men, one was a 16 year old boy, and one an eight year old child. Four of the airguns were .22 air rifles, the other a .177 air rifle. Two committed suicide, one person shooting himself in the head, the other in the chest. In both cases the guns were fired at contact range. Three of the cases were classified as accidents: in two the pellet penetrated into the head and in one the chest. CONCLUSIONS: One person each year dies from an air powered weapon injury in the United Kingdom. In addition there is considerable morbidity from airgun injuries. Fatalities and injuries are most commonly accidents, but deliberately inflicted injuries occur. Airguns are dangerous weapons when inappropriately handled and should not be considered as toys. Children should not play with airguns unsupervised.

Accidents↗
PubMed1983

Nuclear weapons and medicine: some ethical dilemmas.

The enormous destructive power of present stocks of nuclear weapons poses the greatest threat to public health in human history. Technical changes in weapons design are leading to an increased emphasis on the ability to fight a nuclear war, eroding the concept of deterrence based on mutually assured destruction and increasing the risk of nuclear war. Medical planning and civil defence preparations for nuclear war have recently been increased in several countries although there is little evidence that they will be of significant value in the aftermath of a nuclear conflict. These developments have raised new ethical dilemmas for those in health professions. If there is any risk of use of weapons of mass destruction, then support for deterrence with these weapons as a policy for national or global security appears to be incompatible with basic principles of medical ethics and international law. The primary medical responsibility under such circumstances is to participate in attempts to prevent nuclear war.

Civil Defense↗
PubMed2001

Combat casualties in the first decade of the 21st century--new and emerging weapon systems.

This paper reviews new and emerging weapons systems targeted directly or indirectly against personnel. It distinguishes emerging technologies that may form the basis of usable weapons in the next 10 years, from the speculations and aspirations of weapons designers, and identifies six groups of weapons systems which will present significant new or changing threats to UK forces. The article combines this information with knowledge of biophysical interactions and clinical effects, to identify possible consequences for the DMS in terms of types, patterns and numbers of casualties. Ballistic threats will continue to be the most common casualty-producing mechanism for servicemen in any environment.

Equipment Design↗
PubMed1993

Weapon carrying among inner-city junior high school students: defensive behavior vs aggressive delinquency.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to estimate associations between beliefs and experiences hypothesized to be related to weapon carrying among youths. METHODS: Students in two inner-city junior high schools completed anonymous questionnaires. Logistic regression models were fit for having ever carried a weapon for protection or use in a fight and were stratified by sex and weapon type. RESULTS: Among males, 47% had carried knives and 25% had carried guns. Key risk factors for knife carrying were being threatened with a knife, getting into fights, and disbelief that having a weapon increases the carrier's risk of injury. Gun carrying was associated with having been arrested, knowing more victims of violence, starting fights, and being willing to justify shooting someone. Among females, 37% had carried a knife; knowing many victims of violence and being willing to justify shooting someone predicted knife carrying. CONCLUSIONS: Knife carrying was associated with aggressiveness but did not appear to be related to serious delinquency. Gun carrying within this nonrandom sample appeared to be a component of highly aggressive delinquency rather than a purely defensive behavior.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

Carrying and using weapons: A survey of minority junior high school students in New York City.

To explore weapon carrying among young, inner-city adolescents, a survey was administered in fall 1993 to 2005 predominately Hispanic students (mean age = 12.8 years) in three New York City junior high schools. The survey revealed that 21% of students reported personally carrying a weapon; guns and knives were the weapons most commonly carried. Most of those who carried guns reported that they bought them. Forty-two percent indicated that they had a family member or close friend who had been shot. Boys and older students were more likely to report carrying weapons. Preventive efforts may need to begin before or on entry into junior high school rather than high school.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Recent weapon carrying and substance use among United States Virgin Islands youth.

The objective of the present study was to estimate the strength of the associations between recent weapon carrying and alcohol, cigarette, and illicit drug use among US Virgin Islands (USVI) youth. Data from 1,124 students in Grades 7-12 were analyzed using the conditional form of multiple logistic regression. Compared with youth who did not carry a weapon. youth who carried a weapon were more likely to be male and recent cigarette, alcohol, and illicit drug users. After matching on school and controlling for age, sex, race, neigborhood characteristics, and affiliation with friends who use alcohol and illegal drugs, the associations with cigarette smoking and illicit drug use remained both moderate and statistically significant (odds ratio [OR] = 4.31, p < .001; OR = 2.99, p < .001, respectively). These findings identify a potentially high-risk population that could be targeted for interventions to reduce weapon carrying among youth.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Investigating disease outbreaks under a protocol to the biological and toxin weapons convention.

The Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention prohibits the development, production, and stockpiling of biological weapons agents or delivery devices for anything other than peaceful purposes. A protocol currently in the final stages of negotiation adds verification measures to the convention. One of these measures will be international investigation of disease outbreaks that suggest a violation of the convention, i.e., outbreaks that may be caused by use of biological weapons or release of harmful agents from a facility conducting prohibited work. Adding verification measures to the current Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention will affect the international public health and epidemiology communities; therefore, active involvement of these communities in planning the implementation details of the protocol will be important.

Disease Outbreaks↗
PubMed2005

Threat assessment of mycotoxins as weapons: molecular mechanisms of acute toxicity.

Mycotoxins are impractical as tactical weapons, butthey can be used by small poor terrorist organizations to poison food and water sources or can be released in crowded, confined areas. Crude concentrated or dried extracts of readily grown fungal cultures can be used as weapons. The production of fungal weapons does not require elaborate facilities for the growth of fungi, sophisticated equipment for the purification of the toxins, or highly trained personnel. Aflatoxin B1, fumonisin B1, ochratoxin A, and the trichothecenes T-2 toxin and deoxynivalenol could be weaponized for bioterrorism. Knowledge of the symptoms of intoxication and the biochemical mechanisms of action of mycotoxins is necessary for the rapid identification of the toxins, the development of prophylactic antidotes, and the design of effective treatments of affected persons. All of these mycotoxins except deoxynivalenol are carcinogens (Stark, A. A., Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 34:235-262, 1980; Stark, A. A., p. 435-445, in P. S. Steyn and R. Vleggaar, ed., Mycotoxins and phycotoxins, 1986; Stark, A. A., p. 47-60, in C. L. Wilson and S. Droby, ed., Microbial food contamination, 2000; Stark, A. A., and N. Paster, p. 60-64, in M. L. Wahlqvist, A. S. Truswell, R. Smith, and P. L. Nestel, ed., Nutrition in a sustainable environment, 1994). Because immediate and widespread death, illness, or panic is the goal of bioterrorists, the mechanisms by which mycotoxins exert acute toxicity are the focus of this article.

Aflatoxins↗
PubMed2003

Genome projects and gene therapy: gateways to next generation biological weapons.

Genomic and gene therapy research promise important gains into the treatment of human, animal, and plant diseases. However, there is a military aspect to this research that must be recognized. This research enables a new form of biological warfare named genomic warfare. This is the first peer-reviewed scientific article to discuss this threat in-depth. This article advocates that we begin to deal with this threat. Despite that the United States and many signatories of previous bioweapons treaties have agreed not to use biological weapons, mankind has a track record of using all of the weapons at its disposal. This article has a review of the literature and a basic overview of genomic research and gene therapy, which is followed by a discussion of how this therapy can be weaponized. How genomic warfare weapons might be deployed, how deployment may be detected, and the policies and research that would reduce this threat will be described. It is the aim of this article to clearly articulate that this risk exists and to encourage public health, scientific, political, and military leaders to take action to deal with the risk.

Adenoviridae↗
PubMed1992

Weapon involvement and injury outcomes in family and intimate assaults.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the risk of death and the risk of nonfatal injury during firearm-associated family and intimate assaults (FIAs) with the risks during non-firearm-associated FIAs. DESIGN: Records review of police incident reports of FIAs that occurred in 1984. Victim outcomes (death, nonfatal injury, no injury) and weapon involvement were examined for incidents involving only one perpetrator. SETTING: City of Atlanta, Ga, within Fulton County. PARTICIPANTS: Stratified sample (n = 142) of victims of nonfatal FIAs, drawn from seven nonfatal crime categories, plus all fatal victims (n = 23) of FIAs. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Risk of death (vs nonfatal injury or no injury) during FIAs involving firearms, relative to other types of weapons; risk of nonfatal injury (vs all other outcomes, including death) during FIAs involving firearms, relative to other types of weapons. RESULTS: Firearm-associated FIAs were 3.0 times (95% confidence interval, 0.9 to 10.0) more likely to result in death than FIAs involving knives or other cutting instruments and 23.4 times (95% confidence interval, 7.0 to 78.6) more likely to result in death than FIAs involving other weapons or bodily force. Overall, firearm-associated FIAs were 12.0 times (95% confidence interval, 4.6 to 31.5) more likely to result in death than non-firearm-associated FIAs. CONCLUSIONS: Strategies for limiting the number of deaths and injuries resulting from FIAs include reducing the access of potential FIA assailants to firearms, modifying firearm lethality through redesign, and establishing programs for primary prevention of violence among intimates.

Family↗
PubMed1991

Operation Desert Shield: medical aspects of weapons of mass destruction.

Our concern over possible use of weapons of mass destruction against U.S. forces in the Middle East has increased because Iraq has violated the Geneva Protocol of 1925 and the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention, attempted to acquire nuclear capability and delivery systems, and is reported to be developing biological weapons. The Army Medical Department has had no experience, since World War I, in the management and treatment of mass casualties contaminated by chemical agents, and has never treated casualties resulting from the use of nuclear or biological weapons used against our soldiers. Management and diagnosis of casualties will be complicated by their possible exposure to a mixture of chemical warfare and biological warfare agents. Triage is an essential aspect in the management of mass casualties since the number of injured patients will exceed the maximum medical capability to treat each patient on arrival. All levels of medical support must be prepared to protect themselves, their equipment and supplies, and their patients from contamination. In contaminated operations on the integrated battlefield, it will be of utmost importance to incorporate flexibility and innovation to match the medical and tactical situation.

Biological Warfare↗