Search PubMed⌕ Search

SEARCH · Search PubMed

Results for “WAXES”

Search indexed PubMed citations on genomics, clinical trials, systematic reviews and public health. Explore titles, authors and supplied subject terms, then open the PubMed record.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 109 records · Page 6Linked to original sources
PubMed2001

Movement and regeneration of epicuticular waxes through plant cuticles.

Regeneration of plant epicuticular waxes was studied in 24 plant species by high-resolution scanning electron microscopy. According to their regeneration behaviour, four groups could be distinguished: (i) regeneration occurs at all stages of development; (ii) regeneration occurs only during leaf expansion; (iii) regeneration occurs only in fully developed leaves; (iv) plants were not able to regenerate wax. Wax was removed from the leaves with water-based glue and a liquid polymer, i.e. water-based polyurethane dispersion. In young leaves these coverings could not be removed without damaging the leaves. After a few days, waxes appeared on the surface of these polymer films, which still adhered to the leaves. It is concluded that waxes move through the cuticle in a process similar to steam distillation. This hypothesis could be further substantiated in refined in vitro experiments. Wax isolated from Eucalyptus globulus was applied to a filter paper, subsequently covered with a liquid polymer and fixed onto a diffusion chamber filled with water. The diffusion chamber was put into a desiccator. After 8-10 days at room temperature, crystals similar in dimensions and shape to in situ crystals appeared on the surface of the polyurethane film. This indicates that waxes in molecular dimensions move together with the water vapor that permeates through the polymer membrane. Based on these results, we propose a new and simple hypothesis for the mechanism of wax movement: the molecules that finally form the epicuticular wax crystals are moved in the cuticular water current.

Biological Transport↗
PubMed2001

Wax ester biosynthesis in the liver of myctophid fishes.

The biosynthetic properties of wax esters in the liver were compared between two types of myctophid fishes having different body lipid composition, i.e., three triglyceride-rich species (Lampanyctus jordani, Diaphus theta, and Symbolophorus californiensis) and three wax ester-rich species (L. regalis, Stenobracius nannochir, and Stenobracius leucopsarus). n-Heptadecanol (17:0-ALC) and/or 10-cis-heptadecenoic acid (17:1-ACID) was incubated with liver homogenate of the six myctophid fishes and with co-factors such as NADPH and ATP for 2 to 5 h. Considerable amounts of wax esters with odd-numbered fatty acids and/or alcohols were produced in the liver homogenate of the wax ester-rich species. Stenobracius nannochir and L. regalis, which exclusively contained wax esters as neutral lipids, showed the highest activity of wax ester synthesis, followed by S. leucopsarus, which contained triglyceride as the minor constituent. Only trace amounts at most of odd-numbered fatty acids and alcohols were incorporated into the wax esters after incubation with the liver homogenates of the triglyceride-rich fishes. Active interchange between the fatty acids and the alcohols occurred during wax ester biosynthesis in the wax ester-rich fishes. The chain elongation and shortening of acyl moieties were also observed during incubation. These results suggested that the deposition of lipids in myctophid fishes is mainly due to their biosynthetic activities.

Adenosine Triphosphate↗
PubMed2003

Biosynthesis and secretion of plant cuticular wax.

The cuticle covers the aerial portions of land plants. It consists of amorphous intracuticular wax embedded in cutin polymer, and epicuticular wax crystalloids that coat the outer plant surface and impart a whitish appearance. Cuticular wax is mainly composed of long-chain aliphatic compounds derived from very long chain fatty acids. Wax biosynthesis begins with fatty acid synthesis in the plastid. Here we focus on fatty acid elongation (FAE) to very long chains (C24-C34), and the subsequent processing of these elongated products into alkanes, secondary alcohols, ketones, primary alcohols and wax esters. The identity of the gene products involved in these processes is starting to emerge. Other areas of this field remain enigmatic. For example, it is not known how the hydrophobic wax components are moved intracellularly, how they are exported out of the cell, or translocated through the hydrophilic cell wall. Two hypotheses are presented for intracellular wax transport: direct transfer of lipids from the endoplasmic reticulum to the plasma membrane, and Golgi mediated exocytosis. The potential roles of ABC transporters and non-specific lipid transfer proteins in wax export are also discussed. Biochemical-genetic and genomic approaches in Arabidopsis thaliana promise to be particularly useful in identifying and characterizing gene products involved in wax biosynthesis, secretion and function. The current review will, therefore, focus on Arabidopsis as a model for studying these processes.

Arabidopsis↗
PubMed2005

Sorption and conformational characteristics of reconstituted plant cuticular waxes on montmorillonite.

Plant cuticular waxes are essential barriers that regulate the transport of water and organic molecules to intact cuticular membranes. They also compose a significant fraction ofthe recalcitrant aliphatic components of soil organic matter (SOM). In this study, we examined the sorption and desorption of three polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), naphthalene (NAPH), phenanthrene (PHEN), and pyrene (PYR), by cuticular waxes of green pepper (Capsicum annuum) that had been reconstituted by loading them onto montmorillonite (at four different loadings). The reconstituted wax samples, with and without sorbed PAHs, were characterized by solid-state 13C NMR to supply the evidence of melting transition. The sorption isotherms fit well to a Freundlich equation. Sorption isotherms were practically linear except for that of PYR sorption to the low-load wax-montmorillonite sample. The organic-carbon-normalized sorption coefficients (Koc) depended on PAH's lipophilicity (e.g., octanol-water partition coefficient) and increased with increasing wax-load on clay. Desorption was dependent on PAH's molecular sizes and sorbed amounts and on the wax load of the clay. Desorption hysteresis was observed only at high loads of NAPH and PHEN, and it decreased with both increasing wax load and molecular size (i.e. NAPH > PHEN >> PYR). Contributing to hysteresis, the melting transition of the reconstituted waxes after sorbing the PAHs was confirmed by solid-state 13C NMR data. Upon adsorption, the intensity of the NMR peak at 29 ppm (attributed to mobile amorphous paraffinic domains) increased, and a peak at 167 ppm (-COOH) appeared, reflecting the transition of solid amorphous to mobile amorphous domains in the reconstituted waxes. The intensity of melting induced by PAH adsorption decreased with increasing PAH molecular size.

Bentonite↗
PubMed2006

Histologically verified bone wax (beeswax) granuloma after median sternotomy in 17 of 18 autopsy cases.

AIM: To evaluate the sternum from ordinary or forensic autopsy cases with a midline sternal cutaneous scar macro- and microscopically and using computed tomography (CT) to detect if the haemostatic bone sealant bone wax (beeswax) had been applied after median sternotomy and if the bone wax had elicited inflammation. METHODS: During a 3-year period, the sterna of 18 consecutive cadavers (15 ordinary autopsies, 3 forensic) who prior to death had undergone surgery with median sternotomy were examined macro- and microscopically and with CT. In addition, one virgin sternum was smeared with bone wax at the upper half after bench sternotomy, sutured and examined with CT. Unused bone wax was examined with CT for attenuation measurements. RESULTS: Macroscopically, bone wax was seen in 17 of 18 sterna. Acute inflammation was found in one, chronic inflammation and foreign body multinucleated giant cells were seen around the bone wax in 17 sterna. No inflammation was found in one. CT could only detect foci in the operated sterna with attenuation values from -45 to +20 Hounsfield units (HU) and values about -80 HU were found in the virgin sternum. Unused bone wax measured about -100 HU. CONCLUSIONS: Bone wax is non-resorbable and induces chronic inflammation in the operated sternum up to 10 years after application. Measurement of Hounsfield units with CT of the operated sterna could not verify bone wax granuloma.

Aged↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Migration of mineral hydrocarbons into foods. 4. Waxed paper for packaging dry goods including bread, confectionery and for domestic use including microwave cooking.

Retail samples of dry goods (bread, biscuits and breakfast cereals) packaged in waxed paper were examined for the presence of mineral hydrocarbon wax. Bread loaves contained up to 50 mg/kg of the wax (associated with the outer surfaces) and crackers up to 185 mg/kg. Mineral oil was found in bread samples, at up to 550 mg/kg and was dispersed throughout indicating its use in food processing machinery as the likely source. Retail confectionery products wrapped in waxed paper (containing 12-44% w/w) gave rise to levels of 12-1300 mg/kg mineral hydrocarbon in the individually wrapped sweets. Migration into boiled sweets was lowest at 10-130 mg/kg, whilst soft chews and toffee products contained 110-1300 mg/kg. The distribution of wax hydrocarbons (principally n-alkanes) in the confectionery coincided exactly with that for the paper wrapping, with a range of C23 to C33 (95% material) centred around C26. This indicated that the transfer to the food occurred largely by adhesion rather than by diffusion since the latter would be expected to favour preferential migration of the low molecular weight components. In simulated home-use experiments with waxed bags sold in the United States for domestic use, migration into sandwiches and cake amounted to 40 mg/kg (1% transfer of wax). Use of these waxed bags in the microwave oven (as recommended) gave rise to contamination of foods from 210 to 1650 mg/kg (up to 60% transfer of wax).

Bread↗
PubMed2004

Self assembly of epicuticular waxes on living plant surfaces imaged by atomic force microscopy (AFM).

The cuticle of terrestrial vascular plants and some bryophytes is covered with a complex mixture of lipids, usually called epicuticular waxes. Self-assembly processes of wax molecules lead to crystalline three-dimensional micro- and nanostructures that emerge from an underlying wax film. This paper presents the first AFM study on wax regeneration on the surfaces of living plants and the very early stages of wax crystal formation at the molecular level. Wax formation was analysed on the leaves of Euphorbia lathyris, Galanthus nivalis, and Ipheion uniflorum. Immediately after wax removal, regeneration of a wax film began, consisting of individual layers of, typically, 3-5 nm thickness. Subsequently, several different stages of crystal growth could be distinguished, and different patterns of wax regeneration as well as considerable variation in regeneration speed were found.

Euphorbia↗
PubMed1977

Occurrence and patterns of waxes in Neisseriaceae.

Forty-five strains classified in the family Neisseriaceae were analysed for wax esters by gas-liquid chromatography. The amounts and types of waxes varied between the taxa. Waxes were not detected in 16 strains of 'true neisseriae' (genus Neisseria) or in two strains of Kingella, but they were found in all 'false neisseriae', in all species of Moraxella except Moraxella phenylpyrouvica, in five out of 10 strains of Acintobacter, and in all strains of a group of psychrophilic, oxidase-positive organisms. The chain lengths of the wax esters ranged from C24 to C42, with C36 predominating. In all taxa, esters with even numbers of carbon atoms constituted 70 to 100% of the total. Saturated, mono-unsaturated and diunsaturated waxes were found. Acinetobacter strains were characterized by large amounts (30 to 98%) of di-unsaturated wax esters; such waxes did not exceed 8% in the 'false neisseriae' or Moraxella spp. Waxes of strains belonging to the psychrophilic, oxidase-positive group generally resembled those found in Moraxella. Wax esters with odd numbers of carbon atoms were abundant in M. lacunata (29%), M. atlantae (15%) and in the psychorophilic group (19 to 28%); long-chain esters (C40 or above) were characteristic of M. atlantae (30%) and one strain of M. osloensis (26%).

Chromatography, Gas↗
PubMed1981

Effects of bone wax on bacterial clearance.

The hemostatic benefit of bone wax placed in cancellous bone occurs at the expense of the wax persisting at the bony site for years. As such, bone wax appears to act as a foreign body. This study examines the effect of bone wax on the ability of cancellous bone to clear bacteria. The iliac crest of rabbits was penetrated to a standard depth with an 18-gauge needle. Subsequently, nothing or Staphylococcus aureus, 10(5) colony-forming units, was innoculated in the needle site and followed by the subcortical placement of a cylinder of bone wax or similarly sized stainless steel rod. Ten days later, the site of bony penetration was excised and cultured. Eighty percent of animals whose bone was implanted with bacteria and bone wax together had positive cultures. Forty percent of animals whose bone was implanted with bacteria and a steel rod also had positive cultures. The difference between these groups (bacteria with bone wax or with steel rod) was not statistically significant. However, these combinations of bacteria with foreign body were significantly different from the bacteria only or bone wax only or steel rod only groups in which no positive cultures were observed. The data indicate that bone wax significantly impairs the ability of cancellous bone of rabbits to clear a standard inoculum of S. aureus. This effect appears to be the same as that observed with a different but similarly sized foreign body (steel rod).

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Direct Access to Plant Epicuticular Wax Crystals by a New Mechanical Isolation Method.

A new method for the isolation of wax crystals from plant surfaces is presented. The wax-covered plant surface, e.g., a piece of a leaf or fruit, is brought into contact with a preparation liquid, e.g., glycerol or triethylene glycol, and cooled to ca. -100 degrees C. When the plant specimen is removed, the epicuticular wax remains embedded in the frozen liquid. After it warms up, the wax layer can be captured on appropriate carriers for further studies. This isolation method causes very little stress on the wax crystals; thus the shape and crystal structure are well preserved. In many cases it is possible, by choosing a preparation liquid with appropriate wettability, to isolate either the entire epicuticular wax layer or only discrete wax crystals without the underlying wax film. These crystals are well suited for electron diffraction studies by transmission electron microscopy and high resolution imaging by atomic force microscopy. The absence of intracuticular components and other impurities and the feasibility of the selective isolation of wax crystals enable improved chemical analysis and a more detailed study of their properties.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1993

Chemical Signals from Avocado Surface Wax Trigger Germination and Appressorium Formation in Colletotrichum gloeosporioides.

The surface wax of the host, avocado (Persea americana) fruit, induced germination and appressorium formation in the spores of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. Waxes from nonhost plants did not induce appressorium formation in this fungus, and avocado wax did not induce appressorium formation in most Colletotrichum species that infect other hosts. Bioassays of the thin-layer chromatographic fractions of the avocado wax showed that the fatty alcohol fraction was the main appressorium-inducing component. Testing of authentic n-C8 to n-C32 fatty alcohols revealed that C24 and longer-chain alcohols induced appressorium formation. Gas-liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis of free fatty alcohols revealed that avocado wax contains a high content of very long chains. Waxes from nonhost plants containing an even higher content of the very long-chain alcohols did not induce appressorium formation. Waxes from nonhost plants strongly inhibited appressorium induction by avocado wax. Thus, a favorable balance between appressorium-inducing very long-chain fatty alcohols and the absence of inhibitors allows the fungus to use the host surface wax to trigger germination and differentiation of infection structures in the pathogen.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2006

Mechanized applicator for large-scale field deployment of paraffin-wax dispensers of pheromone for mating disruption in tree fruit.

A tractor-mounted mechanized applicator was developed for large-scale deployment of paraffin-wax dispensers of pheromone for mating disruption of oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck). The wax formulation was mostly water and emulsified paraffin wax containing 5% (by weight) pheromone [93:6:1 blend of (Z)-8-dodecen-1-yl-acetate:(E)-8-dodecen-1-yl-acetate: (Z)-8-dodecen-1-ol]. Ten milliliters of wax was applied per tree as approximately 160 deposits (0.04 ml of wax per drop). An average of 23 min was required to treat 1 ha of crop. Disruption efficacy of mechanically applied wax was measured relative to an untreated control in replicated 0.4-ha blocks within a recently abandoned apple orchard. From 6 May to 27 June, 100% disruption of tethered virgin females and 97% inhibition of pheromone traps was achieved for 52 d with two applications of wax. However, during mid- to late summer (July-August), this level of efficacy was maintained for only approximately 1 wk after each of two applications. Higher temperatures later in the season may have accounted for abbreviated efficacy of the applied small drops. Mechanically applied paraffin-wax technology may increase adoption of mating disruption given that a higher level of efficacy was achieved despite deploying less active ingredient per hectare relative to that used with reservoir dispensers. The savings in labor by not requiring hand application of reservoir dispensers could be directed toward cost of machinery. However, the short duration of efficacy obtained with the current wax formulation and mechanical applicator is judged uneconomical given the eight or more applications that would have been required for high-performance disruption over the full season. Larger drops with lower surface area-to-volume ratios are expected to prolong pheromone release for extended efficacy and desirable overall economics.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Identification of a lipid transfer protein as the major protein in the surface wax of broccoli (Brassica oleracea) leaves.

Presence of proteins in the surface wax of plants has been noted but no protein has been identified heretofore. A 9-kDa protein was purified as the major protein from the surface wax of broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) leaves and the N-terminal amino acid sequence was determined. A cDNA corresponding to the wax-associated protein, designated WAX9, was sequenced revealing an open reading frame that codes for an 11.9-kDa polypeptide of 118 amino acids including a 25-amino acid leader peptide. The amino acid sequence showed 40 to 50% identity with nonspecific lipid transfer proteins isolated from various plants. Northern blots showed that a wax9 transcript of 650 nucleotides was highly expressed in leaves, stems, and flower buds and only at a reduced level in open flowers and not in roots. The transcript level decreased as the leaf fully expanded. The results suggest that the wax9 gene is expressed at the highest level at the time of maximal synthesis of the surface wax. Immunogold labeling studies showed that the WAX9 protein was present mainly in the cell wall of the epidermis and mesophyll tissues as well as in the phloem. However, immunological measurements showed that 50 and 4% of the total WAX9 was in the surface wax in the young and old leaves, respectively. Since immunogold labeling method would involve the loss of the surface wax, it would not detect the WAX9 protein in the wax. Thus, the present results reveal for the first time that a major portion of lipid transfer protein is in the surface wax.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed1985

Effect of manipulative variables on the accuracy of crown wax patterns.

An instrument was developed to carve wax patterns in a reproducible manner. The methods of wax application to the die and wax removal during carving were similar to routine laboratory procedures. The wax patterns were invested in stone with the dies on which they were prepared, and sectioned to allow the determination of their adaptation on sectioned samples. Shrinkage of wax patterns on dies was found to create a marginal gap at shoulders and bevels. Further shrinkage observed after removal from the die was attributed to relaxation of elastic stresses in the wax. Carving of bevels improved adaptation to the die for samples with large gaps at the shoulder. This improved adaptation can be attributed to plastic deformation in the wax bevel. Remodeling of pattern margins was found to improve adaptation to the die, especially if carried out after the pattern was removed and replaced on the die. Remodeling the margin should involve heating with a spatula of a narrow band of wax around the margin up to the axial die wall over the entire shoulder width.

Chemical Phenomena↗
PubMed2005

Characterization of waxes used in pictorial artworks according to their relative amount of fatty acids and hydrocarbons by gas chromatography.

A study attempted to characterize natural waxes used in pictorial works of art was carried out by means of gas chromatography. The analytical treatment requires prior hydrolysis of the waxes to release the fatty acids (FA) (myristic (myr), palmitic (pal), oleic (ole), stearic (ste), araquidic (ara), behenic (beh), lignoceric (lig), cerotic (cer)) from the main esters of the waxes. The formation of volatile derivatives of the fatty acids was carried out by derivatization with ethyl choroformate (ECF). This derivatization reagent was chosen due to the speed, safety and quantitativity of the reaction. The analyzed hydrocarbons were n-eicosane, n-heneicosane, n-docosane, n-tricosane, n-tetracosane, n-pentacosane, n-hexacosane, n-heptacosane, n-octacosane, n-nonacosane, n-tricontane n-hentriacontane, n-dotriacontane, n-tritriacontane, n-tetratriacontane, n-pentatriacontane, main constituents of the waxes. No derivatization is needed to analyze the hydrocarbons. Ethyl ester derivatives and hydrocarbons are adequately separated by gas chromatography, identified by flame ionization detection and confirmed by mass spectrometry. To characterize natural waxes, peak area ratios of each fatty acids with respect to the palmitic acid and peak area ratios of each hydrocarbons with respect to n-heptacosane were calculated. The proposed method provides a good characterization of different waxes most frequently used in artworks, such as beeswax, carnauba wax and ceresin, and has been successfully applied to real samples. This is the first report on the application of ECF to the analysis of fatty acids in wax.

Chromatography, Gas↗
PubMed2000

Leaf sheath cuticular waxes on bloomless and sparse-bloom mutants of Sorghum bicolor.

Leaf sheath cuticular waxes on wild-type Sorghum bicolor were approximately 96% free fatty acids, with the C28 and C30 acids being 77 and 20% of these acids, respectively. Twelve mutants with markedly reduced wax load were characterized for chemical composition. In all of the 12 mutants, reduction in the amount of C28 and C30 acids accounted for essentially all of the reduction in total wax load relative to wildtype. The bm2 mutation caused a 99% reduction in total waxes. The bm4, bm5, bm6, bm7 and h10 mutations caused more than 91% reduction in total waxes, whereas the remaining six mutants, bm9, bm11, h7, h11, h12 and h13, caused between 35 and 78% reduction in total wax load. Relative to wild-type, bm4 caused a large increase in the absolute amount of C22, C24 and C26 acids, and reduction in the C28 and longer acids, suggesting that bm4 may suppress elongation of C26, acyl-CoA primarily. The h10 mutation increased the absolute amounts of the longest chain length acids, but reduced shorter acids, suggesting that h10 may suppress termination of acyl-CoA elongation. The bm6, bm9, bm11, h7, h11, h12 and h13 mutations increased the relative amounts, but not absolute amounts, of longer chain acids. Based on chemical composition alone, it is still uncertain which genes and their products were altered by these mutations. Nevertheless, these Sorghum cuticular wax mutants should provide a valuable resource for future studies to elucidate gene involvement in the biosynthesis of cuticular waxes, in particular, the very-long-chain fatty acids.

Acetyl Coenzyme A↗
PubMed1999

KCS1 encodes a fatty acid elongase 3-ketoacyl-CoA synthase affecting wax biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana.

An Arabidopsis fatty acid elongase gene, KCS1, with a high degree of sequence identity to FAE1, encodes a 3-ketoacyl-CoA synthase which is involved in very long chain fatty acid synthesis in vegetative tissues, and which also plays a role in wax biosynthesis. Sequence analysis of KCS1 predicted that this synthase was anchored to a membrane by two adjacent N-terminal, membrane-spanning domains. Analysis of a T-DNA tagged kcs1-1 mutant demonstrated the involvement of the KCS1 in wax biosynthesis. Phenotypic changes in the kcs1-1 mutant included thinner stems and less resistance to low humidity stress at a young age. Complete loss of KCS1 expression resulted in decreases of up to 80% in the levels of C26 to C30 wax alcohols and aldehydes, but much smaller effects were observed on the major wax components, i.e. the C29 alkanes and C29 ketones on leaves, stems and siliques. In no case did the loss of KCS1 expression result in complete loss of any individual wax component or significantly decrease the total wax load. This indicated that there was redundancy in the elongase KCS activities involved in wax synthesis. Furthermore, since alcohol, aldehyde, alkane and ketone levels were affected to varying degrees, involvement of the KCS1 synthase in both the decarbonylation and acyl-reduction wax synthesis pathways was demonstrated.

3-Oxoacyl-(Acyl-Carrier-Protein) Synthase↗
PubMed2002

Effect of wax melting range and investment liquid concentration on the accuracy of a three-quarter crown casting.

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM: Dental casting accuracy is influenced by the setting expansion of investment materials. Although setting expansion can help compensate for casting shrinkage, it cannot be fully realized under a confined wax pattern. Exactly how soft a wax pattern should be to ensure optimum setting expansion has not been determined. PURPOSE: In this study, the relationship between wax characteristics and the casting accuracy of a three-quarter crown was investigated. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Four different wax materials were used: paraffin 135 with a softening temperature of 37.5 degrees C (P38), paraffin 1080 with a softening temperature of 63.5 degrees C, Shofu Red with a softening temperature of 41.5 degrees C, and Shofu Hard with a softening temperature of 51 degrees C. Two mixtures of phosphate-bonded investment were prepared: one with 100% special liquid and another with 75% special liquid plus 25% distilled water. For both, the liquid/powder ratio was 16:100. A type IV gold alloy was cast into a three-quarter crown mold. The discrepancy at 6 locations (1 lingual, 1 mesial, 1 distal, and 3 facial) was measured with a traveling microscope. Five readings were collected. Means and standard deviations were calculated for all data. A 2-way analysis of variance followed by the Student-Newman-Keuls test for multiple comparisons was used to identify significant differences between groups at the 95% confidence level. RESULTS: For the gingival measurement sites (lingual, mesial, and distal), there was no significant difference in cast adaptation when Shofu Hard and paraffin 1080 waxes were used. However, the results with these 2 waxes were different than with Shofu Red and P38. For the 3 facial measurement sites, significantly different measurements were found for each wax; P38 demonstrated the best results. Casting shrinkage was smaller with the use of 100% special liquid. CONCLUSION: Within the limitations of this study, casting shrinkage was affected by the type of wax used and was sensitive to the site at which dimensional measurements were performed. The higher the softening temperature, the larger the casting shrinkage.

Analysis of Variance↗