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Ecological aspects of cattle tick control in central Zambia.
In ecological studies in central Zambia, both climate and ecotype affected population dynamics of tick species. Below average rainfall for several years caused a suppression in numbers of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus Neumann adults. Reduction in rainfall leading to changes in grazing patterns is thought to have been responsible for an increase in numbers of Amblyomma variegatum Fabricius adults in a grassland habitat. There were reasonable correlations between numbers of each tick species on individual hosts over 1 year old. However, there were no relationships between numbers of ticks and bovine lymphocyte antigens (BoLA).
[Planned tick control as a prerequisite for successful East Coast fever control in Tanzania].
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Acaricide resistance and cattle tick control.
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Acaricide resistance and cattle tick control.
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[Method of ticks control with DDT and hexachlorane].
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A comparison of the tick burdens of wild animals in a nature reserve and on an adjacent farm where tick control is practised.
Acaricidal treatment of cattle, sheep and goats on a farm in Valley Bushveld in the Grahamstown district resulted in a reduction in the numbers of certain tick species on kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), scrub hares (Lepus saxatilis) and crowned guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) on the same farm. The tick species most severely affected was Amblyomma hebraeum, while Haemaphysalis silacea, Hyalomma marginatum rufipes and Rhipicephalus appendiculatus were affected to a lesser extent. Rhipicephalus glabroscutatum and Rhipicephalus oculatus appeared to be unaffected.
Controlling tick infestations and diseases in sheep by pour-on formulations of synthetic pyrethroids. A field study.
The use of synthetic pyrethroids in pour-on formulations reduced tick infestations and the incidence of tick-associated diseases in lambs more than dipping in organophosphate acaricides. Though the use of pyrethroids did not prevent the lambs from being infected with tick-borne fever (TBF), the incidence of lambs with lameness (tick pyaemia) or lambs suddenly found dead (Pasteurella haemolytica septicaemia), which often are seen in association with TBF, was reduced. The use of pyrethroids for three years did not seem to affect the prevalence of TBF.
Tick control in the context of ECF immunization.
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The use of a pour-on and spray dip containing Amitraz to control ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) on cattle.
Knockdown and persistence efficacies of a pour-on containing Amitraz 1% and Cypermethrin 1% and a spray dip containing 12.5% Amitraz were compared. Knock-down and persistence efficacies of the Amitraz spray dip against Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus and Amblyomma hebraeum were significantly higher for the duration of the trial than those of the pour-on. In the case of Rhipicephalus appediculatus and Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi, efficacy was significantly higher on Days 2 and 5. Resistance testing prior to the start of the trial indicated that R. (B.) decoloratus was resistant to both Cypermethrin and Amitraz, yet in the case of the spray dip excellent efficacy results were obtained. It is thought that the cattle's scruffy winter coat may have hindered the spread of the pour-on, but that the thorough wetting and especially the higher concentration of active ingredient applied via the spray dip allowed this formulation to be effective. These results show that under certain conditions a spray dip containing 12.5% Amitraz may be more effective than a pour-on containing 1% Amitraz and 1% Cypermethrin, despite apparent in vitro resistance.
[Strengthening the measures for controlling ticks and gadflies].
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Towards strategic control of ticks in the eastern Cape Province of South Africa.
The performance of alphamethrin and flumethrin treated and untreated Bonsmara cows and calves grazing in the thornveld of the Eastern Cape Province was compared over a 2 year period. The economically important tick species occurred seasonally but in insufficient numbers to achieve enzootic stability with respect to babesiosis and anaplasmosis. No differences in live mass were observed for the cows, but the untreated calves were heavier at weaning than the acaricide treated group. Markedly lower numbers of ticks occurred on the calves than on the cows. The implications of the findings are discussed in relation to planning alternative tick control strategies for the region.
Evaluating the economic damage threshold for bont tick (Amblyomma hebraeum) control in Zimbabwe.
Controlling ticks and tick-borne diseases by frequent applications of acaricides (e.g., dipping) is costly, and can leave treated livestock vulnerable to epizootics of tick-borne diseases should the system of applying acaricides break down. The concept of only applying acaricides on an infrequent (strategic) basis often relies on the target tick population displaying a seasonal cycle. However, as adult bont tick (Amblyomma hebraeum) infestations in Zimbabwe's lowveld do not have a strictly seasonal pattern of occurrence, it is recommended that tick control only be applied when bont tick infestations are equal to, or greater than, their economic damage threshold. The economic damage threshold is the minimum average weekly standard female tick burden sufficient to cause damage equal in dollar value to the costs of applying tick control. Assuming that each standard female tick represents a 10 gram weight loss, the economic damage threshold (standard female ticks/week) is equivalent to the ratio of the producer price of beef (liveweight equivalent): per head cost of dipping (Eqn (3)). To illustrate the application of the threshold methodology, it was assumed that the producer price of beef was Z$1.63/kg (U.S.$0.33/kg) and that tick control cost Z$0.29/hd/dip (U.S.$0.06/hd/dip). This gave a threshold of 18 standard female ticks/head/week. Using tick counts obtained from 20 Brahman cattle held at Mbizi in southeastern Zimbabwe, it was shown that for the 1988 calendar year there were only 32 weeks when the economic damage threshold was met or exceeded. This is substantially less that the 44 dippings per year that have been, until very recently, legally required in Zimbabwe. Sensitivity analysis showed that a 10% rise in the cost of dipping reduced to 23 (a 28% decrease) the number of weeks when tick burdens exceeded the economic damage threshold. By further assuming that an acaricide application and residual effects will cause a 3-5 week interval before the next application may be required, the number of weeks when the tick burden was equal to or greater than the threshold of 18 standard females/week fell to just 9-12 weeks. Three factors may cause an alteration in the economic damage threshold: i) tick burdens may cause damage to the udders; ii) secondary infestations (e.g., screw-worm) may cause economic damage; and iii) nutritional stress of the cattle may reduce the actual average per tick weight loss.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
Ticks and control methods.
Ticks are the most important ectoparasites of livestock in tropical and sub-tropical areas, and are responsible for severe economic losses both through the direct effects of blood sucking and indirectly as vectors of pathogens and toxins. Feeding by large numbers of ticks causes reduction in live weight gain and anaemia among domestic animals, while tick bites also reduce the quality of hides. However, the major losses caused by ticks are due to the ability to transmit protozoan, rickettsial and viral diseases of livestock, which are of great economic importance world-wide. The authors review general aspects of tick biology, the taxonomy, pathogenic effects and vector role of these species, and methods for the control of ticks. The distribution of ticks is continuously changing, as illustrated by the spread of the African tick Amblyomma variegatum in the Caribbean, where a large-scale eradication campaign is now under way.
The efficacy of used engine oil against ticks on cattle.
The study was conducted in a peri-urban agricultural system at Botshabelo, a city in the south-eastern Free State. A questionnaire survey revealed that 88.5% of cattle farmers in the area experienced problems related to ticks and tick-borne diseases. Because of the cost of commercial acaricides the Botshabelo farmers use alternative, cheaper methods of tick control, including the application of used engine oil. The specific aim of the study was to determine whether used engine oil can effectively control ticks on cattle. From March to August 1996 the tick burdens of ten control animals and six animals treated by their owner with used engine oil were compared. The total tick burdens for the 6 month period differed significantly between the two experimental groups. The efficacy of the used engine oil on the treated group varied between 15.1% and 64.8% with a mean of 38.1%. Although commercial acaricides can be more cost-effective, the application of used engine oil can be useful to reduce tick numbers on cattle during periods of peak abundance. Another advantage in that the use of the oil will not influence existing endemic stability of Anaplasma marginale and Babesia bigemina infections because of the residual tick burdens after treatment.
Methods currently used for the control of anaplasmosis and babesiosis: their validity and proposals for future control strategies.
Four alternative approaches to the control of anaplasmosis and babesiosis as a complex of diseases are identified: no active control, tick control, immunization, and chemoprophylaxis. These methods may be utilized in one of five strategies: tick eradication with or without concurrent immunization, tick reduction with or without concurrent immunization or no active control. Factors influencing the choice of strategy are discussed.
Integrated control of ticks and tick-borne diseases.
Integrated control of ticks and tick-borne diseases (ICTTD) is currently promoted by an international project, supported by the European Union, with the aim to increase livestock productivity through the development of improved strategies for tick control, vaccine delivery and integrated diagnostics for tickborne diseases. This paper gives a brief overview of the ICTTD project activities against the background of recent initiatives to assess the impact of ticks and tick-borne diseases in the Mediterranean region.