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PubMed2006

Effects of alcohol on the processing of social threat-related stimuli in socially phobic women.

BACKGROUND: Social phobics are at a higher risk of developing alcohol problems. The mechanism promoting this association is not clear. According to Sayette (1993b), alcohol attenuates anxiety responses by disrupting initial appraisal of threatening stimuli. We used the emotional Stroop test and an implicit memory test to investigate whether alcohol hinders appraisal of social threat words in patients diagnosed with social phobia. PROCEDURE: Thirty-two women with social phobia (DSM-IV) and 32 female controls performed an emotional Stroop test either after drinking alcohol resulting in a blood alcohol levels (BAL) of 0.6%. or after drinking a non-alcoholic beverage. The emotional Stroop test contained social anxiety-related and neutral stimuli. Implicit memory for the words presented was tested with a word-stem completion test. RESULTS: Without alcohol, both controls and socially-phobic participants took longer to name the colour of socially-threatening stimuli than of neutral stimuli. Alcohol levelled response latencies to the two stimulus categories only in controls. Socially-phobic participants responded more slowly to social anxiety-related stimuli than to neutral stimuli, irrespective of their BAL. In contrast to controls, social phobics showed an implicit memory bias for social threat words. This bias was attenuated by alcohol. DISCUSSION: Alcohol disrupts appraisal of social anxiety-related stimuli in controls but not in social phobics; in these it hinders the consolidation of memory. This also suggests that social phobics experience similar anxiety with and without alcohol, but remember this experienced anxiety less precisely. This effect might act as a reinforcer for the use of alcohol for the purpose of self-medication in future situations.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Visual fixation patterns during viewing of naturalistic social situations as predictors of social competence in individuals with autism.

BACKGROUND: Manifestations of core social deficits in autism are more pronounced in everyday settings than in explicit experimental tasks. To bring experimental measures in line with clinical observation, we report a novel method of quantifying atypical strategies of social monitoring in a setting that simulates the demands of daily experience. Enhanced ecological validity was intended to maximize between-group effect sizes and assess the predictive utility of experimental variables relative to outcome measures of social competence. METHODS: While viewing social scenes, eye-tracking technology measured visual fixations in 15 cognitively able males with autism and 15 age-, sex-, and verbal IQ-matched control subjects. We reliably coded fixations on 4 regions: mouth, eyes, body, and objects. Statistical analyses compared fixation time on regions of interest between groups and correlation of fixation time with outcome measures of social competence (ie, standardized measures of daily social adjustment and degree of autistic social symptoms). RESULTS: Significant between-group differences were obtained for all 4 regions. The best predictor of autism was reduced eye region fixation time. Fixation on mouths and objects was significantly correlated with social functioning: increased focus on mouths predicted improved social adjustment and less autistic social impairment, whereas more time on objects predicted the opposite relationship. CONCLUSIONS: When viewing naturalistic social situations, individuals with autism demonstrate abnormal patterns of social visual pursuit consistent with reduced salience of eyes and increased salience of mouths, bodies, and objects. Fixation times on mouths and objects but not on eyes are strong predictors of degree of social competence.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Autism spectrum disorder in Fragile X syndrome: differential contribution of adaptive socialization and social withdrawal.

The present study extends our previous work on characterizing the profile of social behavior abnormalities in boys with Fragile X (FraX) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) using clinically oriented behavioral rating scales and standardized instruments. The goal was to further distinguish behavioral parameters contributing to the diagnostic classification of FraX + ASD. The study design included two cohorts of boys with FraX (3-8 years), a larger main cohort for cross-sectional analyses (n = 56, 24 with ASD), and a longitudinal subset (n = 30, 11 with ASD) of the main cohort with up to 3 yearly observations. The focus was on the relative contribution of delayed adaptive socialization and social withdrawal, including item components of their corresponding rating instruments, to the diagnosis of ASD in boys with FraX. Using a combination of regression analyses, we demonstrated that: (1) as delayed socialization, social withdrawal is also a correlate of FraX + ASD; (2) items of social withdrawal scales representing avoidance were the main predictors of ASD status, particularly in older boys; (3) adaptive socialization skills reflecting rules of social behavior and recognition and labeling of emotions, linked to verbal reasoning abilities, were selectively associated with FraX + ASD; (4) adaptive socialization is the primary determinant over time of ASD status in boys with FraX; and (5) integrated adaptive socialization-social withdrawal models allow the identification of distinctive FraX + ASD subgroups. Altogether, our findings suggest that two distinct but interrelated social behavior abnormalities, one linked to impaired cognitive processes (delayed socialization) and the second one to disturbance in limbic circuits (avoidance), play a role in the development of ASD in boys with FraX.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1996

Social isolation increases aggressive behaviour and alters the effects of diazepam in the rat social interaction test.

Isolation rearing in the early stages of life has been shown to modify a variety of behaviours in many animals and the responsitivity to psychotropic drugs. The aims of the present study were to investigate the effects of isolation rearing on anxiety using the social interaction paradigm and to compare the effects of diazepam on social interaction behaviours in isolation and socially reared rats. Male Lister hooded rats were reared from weaning either alone (isolation reared) or in groups of four (socially reared) for 6 weeks and then were tested for social interaction. Both isolation and socially reared rats were exposed to the social interaction test either without drug treatment or following saline or diazepam (1 and 2.5 mg/kg, i.p., 30 min before testing). The results demonstrate that under high light in an unfamiliar arena, the isolation compared to the socially reared rats showed a significantly (P < 0.01) higher level of social interaction, manifested as increases in aggressive and avoidance behaviours, and that this interaction occur for a greater length of time during the test period (10 min). However, when the light level was decreased or when the arena was familiar, active social interaction of isolation reared rats decreased but increased in the socially reared rats. In both conditions the isolation reared rats displayed more aggressive behaviours, in particular biting and boxing the partners which did not occur with the socially reared rats. Pretreatment of diazepam (1 and 2.5 mg/kg., i.p.) caused a dose-related reduction in aggressive behaviours in rats reared under both conditions but increased passive interactions in the socially reared rats. In contrast diazepam (2.5 mg/kg) reduced active interaction in the isolation reared rats but had no effect on passive interaction. These results indicate that isolation rearing increases aggressive behaviours and alters the effects of diazepam.

Aggression↗
PubMed2004

Deficits in perceived social support associated with generalized social phobia.

Social phobia is a common anxiety disorder associated with significant impairment in social and occupational functioning. To date, few studies have examined the relationship between social phobia and perceived social support, a construct with important relationships to physical and mental health. The present study examined data from 2 widely used measures of perceived social support administered to 132 individuals with DSM-IV generalized social phobia. These data were compared with those obtained from a healthy control group and from several clinical and non-clinical samples reported in the literature. Persons with generalized social phobia scored significantly lower on both measures of social support compared with all other groups. It is suggested that deficits in perceived social support associated with generalized social phobia may play a role in the development of co-morbid problems and should be explicitly targeted by treatments for social phobia. Low correlations between perceived social support and social anxiety measures suggest that perceived support should be specifically evaluated in this population.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Chronic social stress, social status, and susceptibility to upper respiratory infections in nonhuman primates.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was to assess the roles of social stress and social status in susceptibility to upper respiratory infection. METHOD: Sixty male cynomolgus monkeys were randomly assigned to stable or unstable social conditions for 15 months. Two markers of social status, social rank and percent of behaviors that were submissive, were assessed at independent observation periods. Endocrine, immune, and behavioral responses were each assessed (at 3-month intervals) during the 9th through 14th months of the study. At the beginning of the 15th month, all animals were exposed to a virus (adenovirus) that causes a common-cold-like illness. The primary outcome was whether or not an animal developed an infection (shed virus) after viral exposure. RESULTS: Although the social instability manipulation was associated with increased agonistic behavior as indicated by minor injuries and elevated norepinephrine responses to social reorganizations, the manipulation did not influence the probability of being infected by the virus. However, low social status (as assessed by either marker) was associated with a substantially greater probability of being infected. It was also associated with less body weight, greater elevated cortisol responses to social reorganizations, and less aggressive behavior. However, none of these characteristics could account for the relation between social status and infection. CONCLUSIONS: Social stress was not associated with susceptibility to infection. However, animals with lower social status were at higher risk than high social status animals.

Adenoviruses, Simian↗
PubMed1997

[Social support, social stress and health of slightly disabled elderly persons].

The paper examines the influence of social networks on social support and social stress and analyses the impact of social support and stress on health. 171 (t1, 1992) and 135 (t2, 1993) persons aged 75 and older in need of a little help but still living on their own were personally interviewed in three districts of the city of Zurich. The results demonstrate that social networks are important for mobilizing social support and that these mobilizing processes are characterized by sex differences: The family (i.e. the partner) is much more important for men than for women who rely both on family and non-family social networks. There are only weak relationships between social networks and social stress. Social support affects health positively by indirect mechanisms. From t1 to t2 social networks, social support and health remain rather constant while social stress changes substantially.

Activities of Daily Living↗
PubMed1999

The Finnmark study. Social support, social network and mental distress in a prospective population study.

BACKGROUND: Earlier studies on the direct effect of social support and social network upon mental health have mostly been done in cross-sectional studies and the results have been conflicting. METHODS: The direct effect of social network and social support upon mental distress was tested in population-based health surveys conducted in 1987, 1990 and 1993. The population consisted of all persons aged 40-62 years and a random sample of persons aged between 20 and 39 years living in five small municipalities in Finnmark, the northernmost county in Norway. The attendance rates were 77%, 74% and 70% for the three health surveys, respectively. All those who had attended the health surveys more than once and answered the key questions about mental distress, social support and social network were selected for analyses (966 persons who attended both the two first health surveys and 1425 persons attending both the two last surveys). A theoretical full cross-lagged panel model was used to search for the predictive effects of time 1 variables (mental distress, social network and social support) upon corresponding subsequent variables. RESULTS: Mental distress, social support and social network at time 1 strongly predicted the corresponding variable at the next time point. Emotional support at time 1 exerted a weak positive effect upon mental distress on the next time point, explaining approximately 1% of the variance. Neither the social network nor instrumental support at time 1 predicted degree of mental distress at the subsequent time point. CONCLUSION: We conclude that social network and social support have very little direct predictive effect upon mental distress 3 years later in this population.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Social class and suicidal behaviour: the associations between social class and the characteristics of deliberate self-harm patients and the treatment they are offered.

BACKGROUND: Rates of deliberate self-harm (DSH) in the United Kingdom are much higher in lower than upper social class groups. Previous investigations have shown differences in socio-demographic and clinical characteristics of male patients according to social class. In two studies of DSH patients in Edinburgh the extent of provision of psychiatric aftercare was inversely related to social class. These findings have not been investigated in other areas. METHOD: Data collected through the Oxford Monitoring System for Attempted Suicide were used to examine the association between social class and socio-demographic and clinical characteristics in male and female DSH patients who presented to the general hospital in Oxford between mid-1988 and 1996 and to determine whether the previously reported social class differences in provision of psychiatric aftercare were replicated. RESULTS: Data on social class were available for 2,828 DSH patients (1,290 males, 1,538 females). In both genders, lower social class group tended to be associated with younger age. In males, the main social class differences were found in under-35-year-olds, in whom lower social class was related to criminal record, violence to others and drug misuse. In females, psychiatric disorders were diagnosed more frequently in the higher social class groups, but only in the under-35 age group. In neither gender was there a significant association between social class and the frequency of offer of psychiatric aftercare following DSH. CONCLUSIONS: There are considerable variations in socio-demographic and clinical characteristics of both male and female DSH patients in different social classes, especially in younger patients. The reason for the absence of a marked social class gradient in psychiatric aftercare found in this study in contrast to the results from previous investigations may be related to differences in styles of service.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

What determines well-being in obesity? Associations with BMI, social skills, and social support.

OBJECTIVE: Theory and research suggest that the stigma associated with obesity has an impact on the development of social skills and social relationships which may be related to subjective well-being. The main objective was to clarify the associations between BMI (kg/m2), social skills, social support and subjective well-being in a sample of obese subjects. METHODS: Cross-sectional study of 226 obese adults (75 females and 151 males) from the general population between the ages of 19 and 74 [mean (SD), 46.9 (13.7) years]. Mean (SD) BMI of the subjects was 36 (5.3). OUTCOME MEASURES: subjective well-being was measured by the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) and by the Positive And Negative Affect Scales (PANAS). Social support was assessed with scales of the Social Support Questionnaire F-SozU and social skills with a short form of the German Insecurity Questionnaire U-24. RESULTS: Hierarchical regression analysis showed that social support and social skill measures are relevant predictors of subjective well-being (with both independent and shared influences), while BMI is not. The obese people in our study neither differed from other comparison groups in their subjective well-being, nor did they report greater impairments in social skills or social support. CONCLUSION: BMI does not seem to be the major determinant of low subjective well-being in obesity. As in healthy controls, subjective well-being is principally associated with social skills and social support.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Psychosocial work conditions, social participation and social capital: a causal pathway investigated in a longitudinal study.

Social capital is often claimed to be promoted by stable social structures such as low migration rates between neighbourhoods and social networks that remain stable over time. However, stable social structures may also inhibit the formation of social capital in the form of social networks and social participation. One example is psychosocial conditions at work, which may be determined by characteristics such as demand and control in the work situation. The study examines the active workforce subpopulation within the Swedish Malmö Shoulder Neck Study. A total of 7836 individuals aged 45-69 years, were interviewed at baseline between 1992 and 1994, and at a 1-year follow-up. Four groups of baseline psychosocial work conditions categories defined by the Karasek-Theorell model (jobstrain, passive, active, relaxed) were analysed according to 13 different social participation items during the past year reported at the 1-year follow-up. Odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals with the jobstrain group as a reference were estimated. A multivariate logistic regression model was used to assess differences in different aspects of social participation between the four psychosocial work conditions groups. The results show that the respondents within the active category in particular but also the relaxed category, have significantly higher participation in many of the 13 social participation items, even after multivariate adjustments. The results strongly suggest that psychosocial work conditions may be an important determinant of social capital measured as social participation, a finding of immediate public health relevance because of the well known positive association between social participation and health-related behaviours.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2001

Poor people, poor places, and poor health: the mediating role of social networks and social capital.

This paper explores the dynamics between poverty and exclusion; neighbourhood, and health and well being by considering the role of social networks and social capital in the social processes involved. It is based on qualitative research taking two deprived areas as exemplary case studies, and involving depth interviews with residents. Neighbourhood influences on networks and social capital were explored, network typologies developed reflecting structural and cultural aspects of individual's networks, and pathways implicated in health effects considered. The complexity of social capital is addressed. The role of three factors in influencing social networks and social capital are demonstrated: neighbourhood characteristics and perceptions; poverty and social exclusion, and social consciousness. Perceptions of inequality could be a source of social capital as well as demoralisation. Different network structures-dense and weak, homogeneous and heterogeneous- were involved in the creation of social capital and had implications for well being. Coping, enjoyment of life and hope are identified as benefits. Although participation in organisations was confirmed as beneficial, it is suggested that today's heterogeneous neighbourhoods also require regenerated local work opportunities to develop bridging ties necessary for the genesis of inclusive social capital and better health. Despite the capacity of social capital to buffer its harsher effects, the concept is not wholly adequate for explaining the deleterious effects of poverty on health and well being.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2003

Assessment of social cognition in frail older adults and its association with social functioning in the nursing home.

PURPOSE: The aims of this study were to reliably assess a range of social-cognitive functioning in frail seniors and to examine the association between measures of social cognition and nurses' ratings of residents' social functioning in a nursing home. DESIGN AND METHODS: Forty nursing home residents with and without cognitive impairment completed 11 social cognition tasks on two occasions after assessment of their cognitive functioning with the Cambridge Cognitive Examination-Revised (CAMCOG), CAMCOG Executive Function, and two tests of working memory. Staff on the nursing units completed two measures of social behavior. RESULTS: Participants completed the social cognition protocol without difficulty. The measures demonstrated good internal (median alpha =.75) and test-retest reliability (median correlation =.70). Four of the social cognition measures were significantly associated with the measures of cognitive functioning; three additional measures showed significant positive associations with subsets of the cognitive tests. Regression analyses revealed that measures of social cognition were significantly and independently associated with nurses' ratings of residents' social functioning after age, gender, education, and the four measures of cognitive functioning were controlled for. One measure of social cognition that assessed interpersonal problem-solving accounted for 45% of the variance in nurses' ratings of participants' social functioning (F = 41.35; df = 1,17; p <.001). IMPLICATIONS: Measures of social cognition assess a domain of functioning that is not evaluated by traditional tests of cognitive status. These measures are informative about frail, older adults' ability to understand and respond to others and could be used to predict patterns of social functioning in nursing homes and other naturalistic settings.

Aged↗
PubMed1994

Social support and social structure: a descriptive epidemiology.

Despite a very large and growing literature demonstrating the significance of social support for health and well-being, surprisingly little is known about the social distribution of this crucial resource. This paper presents data on the distribution of social support and support resources across social class, marital status, age and gender, with the aims of contributing toward an understanding of the impact of social structures on processes of social support, and of assessing the hypothesis that epidemiological variations in mental health arise partially from social support differences. The epidemiology of perceived social support was found to correspond closely to the epidemiology of psychological distress and disorder. The single exception involved gender, where a positive rather than negative relationship was observed, with women demonstrating the highest levels of both social support and psychological distress. The observed patterns of variation in social support link this significant adaptive resource to one's locations in the social structure and reinforce the conclusion that it represents a promising intervention target. The practical importance of these results, however, are not matched by theoretical significance. Except in the case of marital status, our findings largely discount the hypothesis that the social distribution of mental health is partially attributable to social support differences.

Adult↗
PubMed1987

Adolescent self-reports of social activity: assessment of stability and relations to social adjustment.

Adolescents' self-reports of peer social activity were examined with regard to short-term stability and in relation to social adjustment. Two separate periods of data collection are reported; year 1 with 74 grade nine students and year 2 with 76 grade nine students. On both occasions, four administrations of a self-report questionnaire were undertaken. As well, in year 2, social adjustment ratings, indices of perceived competence and self-efficacy, and IQ were collected. The analyses of the measure's consistency indicated acceptable stability of the self reports across two weeks and high internal consistency. These findings indicate the potential utility of this methodology for studying peer activity. Zero-order and multiple correlation analyses between social activity, self-evaluations and social adjustment were computed. The analyses suggest that peer social activity is correlated with social self-esteem, enhanced social self-efficacy and teacher's ratings of social engagement. Social isolation appeared to be an independent dimension and was related to lowered self-esteem and teacher ratings of social withdrawal. Overall, the results of the study add to our understanding of the components of social adjustment in adolescence.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

Social skills in schizophrenia: assessing the relationship between social skills, psychopathology and community functioning.

Social skills training (SST) has been widely used in attempts to rehabilitate chronic schizophrenic patients. The key assumption underlying SST is that social skills deficits are important determinants of the social isolation, poor social role functioning, and low quality of life characteristic of schizophrenic patients. To test this assumption, 89 patients meeting DSM-III-R criteria for schizophrenia were assessed on behavioural and self-report measures of social skills. A structured clinical interview, a self-report inventory of distress during social interaction, and self-monitoring of time in social interaction were used to assess social functioning. Positive psychotic symptoms were assessed in a standardised clinical interview. A structural equation modelling analysis showed that observed social skills predicted social functioning, and that this association was statistically independent of severity of psychotic symptoms. This finding is consistent with the hypothesis that social skills are important in the social functioning of patients with schizophrenia.

Activities of Daily Living↗
PubMed2004

Women's body dissatisfaction, social class, and social mobility.

Several studies indicate that socially advantaged women are more dissatisfied with their bodies than socially disadvantaged women. These findings have been based on women's current social class, and no attention has been paid to the social class of her family of origin or to intergenerational social mobility. In the present research 912 54-year-old women from a prospective birth cohort study provided self-report data on current body esteem (appearance and weight dimensions). Childhood and adult social class (manual versus non-manual) were defined based on father's occupation and own or partner's occupation, respectively. This information and the highest educational qualifications recorded by age 26 were gathered prospectively. Indicators of current and adolescent body mass index (BMI) were computed from height and weight values collected at ages 15 (or 11) and 53-54 years. Multiple regression was used to examine the relationship between midlife body esteem and childhood social class, adult social class, educational qualifications, and social mobility, unadjusted and adjusted for BMI. Women from the non-manual classes as adults were more dissatisfied with their weight than women from the manual classes as adults, for a given BMI. Adjusting for BMI, downwardly mobile women were more satisfied with their appearance than stable non-manual women. Adjusting for BMI, higher educational qualifications were associated with more dissatisfaction with weight and with appearance, and education appears to be more important than occupationally defined social class in explaining body dissatisfaction. A clearer understanding of the relationship between socio-economic position and body dissatisfaction demands that the following distinctions are made: weight versus appearance satisfaction, education versus occupation, and current social class versus intergenerational social mobility.

Body Image↗
PubMed2005

Micro-social structural approaches to HIV prevention: a social ecological perspective.

To be effective and sustainable, HIV-prevention interventions need to be sufficiently powerful to counteract prevailing social norms and diffuse through the targeted community to provide social reinforcement for behaviour change. Social structural and environmental factors are major influences on HIV-related behaviours yet the dearth of conceptualization and operationalization of these factors impede progress in intervention development. In this paper we propose a social ecological perspective to intervention and highlight relevant theories from social psychology and organizational behaviour literatures. We examine social networks and social settings as micro-structural and environmental influences on HIV risk behaviours, social identities and norms, and as important targets for HIV-prevention intervention. Intervention approaches are proposed that target networks and behavioural settings and provide participants with socially meaningful and rewarding behavioural options that are consistent with valued prosocial identities or roles. Examples are presented on how such an approach has been utilized in prior HIV prevention interventions, including our social network-oriented intervention that trained disadvantaged former and current illicit drug users to conduct peer outreach. We describe how behavioural interventions may enhance or introduce new prosocial identities and social roles, and that network members may confer social approval to reinforce these identities and roles, leading to sustained behavioural risk reduction and changes in risk behaviour norms.

Community Health Services↗