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PubMed2002

Firstborn preference and attitudes toward using sex selection technology.

The authors investigated sex preferences for firstborn children and (a) pro- technology attitudes and willingness to use sex selection technology (SST) and (b) social conformity. College students (N = 469; 239 women, 230 men) answered demographic questions and questions on technology usage and personal preferences and completed a measure of conformity. Findings revealed a significant overall preference for firstborn males, a specific preference of potential SST users for firstborn sons, and a greater willingness of African American students, compared with White students, to use SST. No correlation was found between conformity and potential SST use. Logistic regression results suggested that protechnology attitudes may be predictive of firstborn preferences. Implications of the findings are discussed in relation to gender equality and population sex ratios.

Adult↗
PubMed1990

The relation of gender understanding to children's sex-typed preferences and gender stereotypes.

Our goal was to explore how children's understanding of gender as a social category relates to their acquisition of sex-typed knowledge and preferences. Children's gender concepts, sex-typed preferences, and stereotyped knowledge were measured in 61 boys and girls (3-5 years). Gender concept measures included ability to identify and to discriminate the sexes, understanding gender group membership, temporal stability of gender, and gender consistency over situational changes. Children improved with age on most of the measures except gender consistency. With the exception of consistency, measures of gender concept understanding were found to be related to children's stereotyped toy and clothing knowledge and/or to their sex-typed toy preferences (with age controlled). It was shown that only rudimentary gender understanding is needed prior to children learning about sex stereotypes and prior to showing strong sex-typed preferences for peers or toys. The roles of gender identity, stability, consistency, and group membership in the sex-typing process are discussed.

Child↗
PubMed2000

Son preference and sex composition of children: evidence from India.

Although the effect of son preference on sex composition of children ever born is undetectable in national-level estimates that aggregate across all families, this article provides empirical evidence from India that son preference has two pronounced and predictable family-level effects on the sex composition of children ever born. First, data from India show that smaller families have a significantly higher proportion of sons than larger families. Second, socially and economically disadvantaged couples and couples from the northern region of India not only want but also attain a higher proportion of sons, if the effects of family size are controlled.

Decision Making↗
PubMed1994

Androgen and the development of human sex-typical behavior: rough-and-tumble play and sex of preferred playmates in children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH).

We hypothesized that girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), who experience higher than normal levels of androgens prenatally, would show masculinization of behaviors that show sex differences. Therefore, we examined rough-and-tumble play and sex of preferred playmates in 3-8-year-old children with CAH and in unaffected 3-8-year-old male and female relatives. The hypothesized sex differences in rough-and-tumble play were seen, with unaffected boys showing more rough-and-tumble play than unaffected girls. However, CAH girls were similar to unaffected girls. Additionally, CAH boys showed reduced rough-and-tumble play. In contrast, sex of preferred playmates showed the hypothesized pattern of results. There were sex differences, with unaffected boys preferring boys and unaffected girls preferring girls. In addition, the preferences of girls with CAH were masculinized compared to those of unaffected girls. Results are discussed in terms of possible influences of social, hormonal, and illness factors.

Adrenal Hyperplasia, Congenital↗
PubMed1998

Preference for sex of first child among women classified as androgynous and nonandrogynous.

This paper examined the relation between gender-role orientation and the preference for sex of firstborn child in 212 pregnant nulliparous women. The Bem Sex-role Inventory was used to assess gender-role orientation of participants. Analysis suggested that gender-role orientation, as measured does not effectively predict the preference for sex of firstborn child.

Adult↗
PubMed1974

The effects of a token reinforcement procedure on bus ridership.

Tokens, exchangeable for a variety of back-up reinforcers, were delivered for several days to all persons boarding a clearly marked campus bus. This procedure increased ridership to 150% of baseline. The experiment was carried out to demonstrate the applicability of operant techniques to urban transportation problems. In this study, a token reinforcement procedure was introduced in an attempt to increase bus ridership while holding the costs of reinforcers to a minimum and circumventing the problems of individual satiety and preferences and of delivering cumbersome reinforcers. A methodology for establishing a token-exchange procedure in an "open-field" behavior setting, where the subject population size, geographic location, preferences, age, sex, preferred hours of mobility, etc. are unspecified, is also presented.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1989

[[Child-sex effects on further births]].

This paper clarifies the child-sex effects on the number of additional children in Japan. The data were retrospective birth histories of the 8th Japanese National Fertility Survey carried out by the Institute of Population Problems in 1982. 1st, the authors found that the majority of the Japanese had a balanced sex preference. There was a slight shift from boy preference to girl preference in terms of the parity progression ratio. The effect of the 1st child's sex was small, but the effect of the parity-2 sex combination was as big or bigger than that of other socioeconomic variables. Next, the authors observed some evidence suggesting strong sex preference in opinion and behavior, such as differential intentions of further childbearing due to the sex of previous children and differences in the number of abortions caused by the sex combination of living children. Finally, the authors noted further issues to be examined in the study of sex preference in Japan.

Abortion, Induced↗
PubMed1985

Preference for sex of child among primiparous women.

Primiparous American women (N = 140) were questioned during their third trimester concerning their choice of sex of offspring and their willingness to use sex preselection techniques (if available). Eighty-two women expressed no preference for sex of offspring; of the remaining 58, 33 chose girls and 25 chose boys. Of the 26 women who indicated they would have used preselection technology, 13 chose boys and 13 chose girls. Fifty-three percent of the sample indicated they would not have used preselection techniques; 29% were undecided. These results were at variance with earlier studies that indicated a consistent choice of male firstborns, especially in nonpregnant samples. The discrepancy is discussed in terms of a move from boy preference to no preference and a gradual weakening of societal bias against women.

Attitude↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Maternal reactions to fetal sex.

A descriptive design was used to characterize maternal reactions to the knowledge of fetal sex based on sex preference. The sample was 88 females with singleton pregnancies who had had an amniocentesis for fetal chromosome studies and met the following sample criteria: (a) Fetal karyotype and other studies were normal, (b) knowledge of fetal sex was desired, and (c) sex preference had been established. Maternal reactions to the knowledge of fetal sex were ascertained through a questionnaire I developed and that participants answered in writing. Sample characteristics were summarized using descriptive statistics, and the mothers' narrative responses were subjected to content analysis. Maternal sex preferences were equally split between male and female. However, there were differences in the way mothers who attained and mothers who did not attain their preferred fetal sex spoke of their fetuses.

Adult↗
PubMed1978

The development of cognitive gender constancy and sex role preferences.

The chief purpose of this study was to examine the development of stable concepts of "boy" and "girl" (gender identity constancy) in kindergartners and first and second graders. Gender constancy was explored in relation to cognitive level (assessed both by grade and conservation measures); whether the concept was applied to the subject himself or to another child; whether the concept was applied to live children or pictorial representations; and sex role preferences (games, television characters, peer preferences). In support of a cognitive-developmental position, gender constancy was found to be related to cognitive level, and most children conformed to a developmental sequence (Guttman scalogram) in which conservation preceded gender constancy. Gender constancy performance was better when the concept was applied to the self versus another child and when applied to pictorial representations versus live forms. Gender constancy was not related to sex role preferences.

Child↗
PubMed1997

[Visually-guided discrimination and preference of sexuality in female macaque monkeys].

Visual information about face and body including facial expression and bodily behavioral patterns has been known to play an important role in social and emotional communication in monkeys. Its involvement in sexual activity has also been demonstrated in male monkeys but it is poorly understood in female monkeys. In the present study, visually-guided discrimination and preference of sexuality were investigated in female macaque monkeys performing operant bar-press tasks in an experimental cage which had a transparent panel facing a display. In the sex discrimination task, two rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) were trained to discriminate sex of a monkey shown in a picture which was randomly selected from six photographs (three males and three females) and was presented on the display. The monkey pressed a right or left bar for male or female monkey, respectively, to get water as a reward. Under this discrimination task, the monkeys could discriminate the sexes of monkeys shown in newly presented pictures. When choice bars were reversed, correct responses significantly decreased below chance level. In the sex preference task, three rhesus monkeys and three Japanese monkeys (M. juscata) were used. The monkeys voluntarily pressed the bar to watch the video movie showing either male or female rhesus monkeys. The movies were presented as long as the subject kept pressing the bar. The same movie was continued when the monkey pressed the bar again within 10s after the previous release of the bar, while it was changed to the other when 10s passed after the subject released the bar. The total duration of the responses in daily sessions was measured. In this visual preference task, four out of six monkeys showed sex preference. Three adult Japanese monkeys (6-8 y) pressed the bar to watch the video movie of male monkeys which was taken in breeding season with longer duration than that of female monkeys taken in the same season. The other two adult rhesus monkeys (7 8 y) did not show the sexual preference. The one remaining youngest rhesus monkey (5 y) preferred to watch the female movie which was taken in non-breeding season. The visual preference was observed not only in winter but also in summer when tested. The present results suggest that visual information alone is sufficient to discriminate sex and produce sex preference in some female monkeys. The seasonal changes in visual appearance of objects seem to be more determinant factors for the preference than the endogenous factors of subjects.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Chemosensory and steroid-responsive regions of the medial amygdala regulate distinct aspects of opposite-sex odor preference in male Syrian hamsters.

In rodent species, such as the Syrian hamster, the expression of sexual preference requires neural integration of social chemosensory signals and steroid hormone cues. Although anatomical data suggest that separate pathways within the nervous system process these two signals, the functional significance of this separation is not well understood. Specifically, within the medial amygdala, the anterior region (MEa) receives input from the olfactory bulbs and other chemosensory areas, whereas the posterodorsal region (MEpd) contains a dense population of steroid receptors and receives less substantial chemosensory input. Consequently, the MEa may subserve a primarily discriminative function, whereas the MEpd may mediate the permissive effects of sex steroids on sexual preference. To test these hypotheses, we measured preference and attraction to female and male odors in males with lesions of either the MEa or MEpd. In Experiment 1, lesions of either region eliminated opposite-sex odor preferences. Importantly, MEpd-lesioned males displayed decreased attraction toward female odors, suggesting decreased sexual motivation. In contrast, MEa-lesioned males displayed high levels of investigation of both male and female odors, suggesting an inability to categorize the relevance of the odor stimuli. In Experiment 2, we verified that both MEa- and MEpd-lesioned males could discriminate between female and male odors, thereby eliminating the possibility that the observed lack of preference reflected a sensory deficit. Taken together, these results suggest that both the MEa and MEpd are critical for the expression of opposite-sex odor preference, although they appear to mediate distinct aspects of this behavior.

Amygdala↗
PubMed1999

Fertility rates in Denmark in relation to the sexes of preceding children in the family.

Analysis of the effect of sex combination of previously born children in the family on fertility rates was performed for 363,373 Danish families comprising a total of 613,900 children, to address the questions of sex preference and combination preference. The fertility rates were stratified by parental age, period and latency time to the next child, and fertility rate ratios were estimated using multiplicative Poisson regression models. Our results demonstrate a strong preference for a balanced composition of sexes in Danish families. In families with two or three children the highest fertility rates were seen in families who had same-sexed children. The lowest fertility rates were in families with two children of identical sex followed by a child of the opposite sex. A moderate sex preference for girls was indicated by higher fertility rates in two-boy families than in two-girl families.

Birth Rate↗
PubMed2000

Sexual partner age preferences of homosexual and heterosexual men and women.

The sexual age preferences of 192 adults (equal groups of heterosexual men, heterosexual women, homosexual men, and homosexual women) were examined. Participants rated the sexual attractiveness of pictures of 15 male and 15 female faces arranged into five apparent average age categories ranging from 18 to 60 years. It was predicted that homosexual and heterosexual men would prefer younger partners of their preferred sex than would homosexual and heterosexual women and that age preference would not vary with participant age. Both predictions were supported, although homosexual women preferred older partners than expected. Results suggest that age and sex preferences develop independently.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1988

Psychological gender, hand preferences, and sex differences in book-carrying styles.

Individuals with stronger sex-role identities may be expected to show greater conformity to sex-typed behaviors. Proceeding from this assumption, the sex-role status and sex of students using different styles of carrying books were compared. This study also examined whether over-all hand preference or age were related to carrying styles or sex-role status. Subjects completed a questionnaire comprised of the 24-item Personal Attributes Questionnaire of Spence and Helmreich, a 6-item scale of hand preference and a self-rating of sex-role identity. Afterwards, each subject's carrying style was covertly observed and recorded. Most subjects carried their materials in a sex-typical way or in book bags (for which no sex-typed carrying styles were discovered). As in previous studies, men in this study scored higher than women on masculinity and androgyny and lower on femininity. Hand preference was not related to sex-role status. Carrying style was not significantly correlated with any of the predictor variables for men, perhaps because almost no variance in carrying style was observed among them. Women who used masculine carrying styles tended to be older, have greater instrumentality, and a more masculine identity.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Family size, fertility preferences, and sex ratio in China in the era of the one child family policy: results from national family planning and reproductive health survey.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the impact of the one child family policy in China on fertility, preferred family size, and sex ratio. DESIGN: Secondary analysis of data from the Chinese cross sectional national family planning and reproductive health survey, 2001. Interviews of representative sample of women aged 15-49. RESULTS: Data were obtained from 39,585 women, with a total of 73,202 pregnancies and 56,830 live births. The average fertility rate in women over 35 (n = 17,078) was 1.94 (2.1 in rural areas and 1.4 in urban areas) and for women under 35 (n = 11,543) 1.73 (1.25 and 1.79). Smaller families were associated with younger age, higher level of education, and living in an urban area. The male to female ratio was 1.15 and rose from 1.11 in 1980-9 to 1.23 for 1996-2001. Most women wanted small families: 35% preferred one child and 57% preferred two. CONCLUSION: Since the one child family policy began, the total birth rate and preferred family size have decreased, and a gross imbalance in the sex ratio has emerged.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Needs and preferences regarding sex education among Chinese college students: a preliminary study.

CONTEXT: College students are more likely than other student populations to be sexually active. To improve sex education in China among this group, educators must know college students' needs and their preferences for receiving information on sexuality. METHODS: In 2002, students at a large Chinese university completed surveys about their history of school-based sex education and their other sources of information on sexuality. The survey also explored students' preferences for topics to be included in a college-level sex education course, comfort level with receiving information on these topics and views of effective teaching strategies. RESULTS: Before college, 47% of respondents had received no school-based education on sexual behavior; however, all respondents had taken a class covering reproduction, typically beginning in middle school (78%). Reading material, radio, classroom lecture and parents were more popular sources of information among females than among males; friends, the Internet and personal sexual experience were more frequent sources for males than for females. Higher proportions of males than females favored including sex therapy and masturbation in a hypothetical course. In addition, males felt more comfortable than females discussing 11 of 20 subjects; the two genders indicated similar levels of comfort in talking about the other topics. Males and females differed on how best to convey information on sexuality, with females generally favoring private methods, such as reading. CONCLUSIONS: More comprehensive school-based sex education is needed for Chinese youth. When developing and implementing such programs, health educators should consider differences between males' and females' preferred ways for receiving information on sexuality.

Adult↗