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Few significant differences in self-disclosure were noted for 202 adolescents in Grades 8 and 12. Reliability and validity were reasonable but varied over 6 categories of disclosure. Both boys and girls disclosed more to target females and less to fathers. Findings agree with prior literature.
The findings suggest that the clinical supervisors surveyed associate therapist effectiveness (i.e., competence and sophistication) with capacity for self-revelation in the presence of clients. Trainee maturity as therapist was not correlated highly with self-disclosure, a finding that may indicate that self-disclosure is (a) more independent of the training process than competence and sophistication, and (b) that self-disclosure, as manifested in the clinical context, may be more of a trait than a state-like personality characteristic.
Given the relational deficits men bring to a group, therapist self-disclosure is particularly pertinent with all-male groups. The use of this intervention reflects the author's long experience with such groups. The author writes from an interpersonal, collaborative model of group therapy, and discusses types of self-disclosure and the guiding principles in their use. Drawing primarily from his own practice, the author presents and discusses clinical vignettes that illustrate both helpful and nonhelpful uses of self-disclosure.
The first part of this research, a questionnaire study on 260 single British males, found neuroticism to be inversely related to need for social approval, thus raising an issue about the validity of the EPI-N scale. From the second part, a laboratory study with 48 subjects selected by the questionnaire study, there were four main findings: (1) an earlier finding, that most subjects tended in the direction of a double standard in which they anticipated more risk stemming from their own than from their friend's negative self-disclosures, was replicated highly significantly; (2) neuroticism was not associated significantly with differences in anticipated reactions for either negative or positive self-disclosures; (3) there was a large and highly significant main effect for order, with those subjects who first rated their own reactions to their friend's negative self-disclosures anticipating being esteemed less negatively than those who first rated their friend's reactions to their own negative self-disclosures; and (4) there were significant differences for some characteristics between self-attribution and friend's attribution after negative self-disclosure. Practical implications of the above findings are explored.
This study examined the effect of anonymity on adolescents' sexual self-disclosure on the Internet and the impact of topic intimacy on their reply intent for sexual disclosure by conducting a survey with 1,347 adolescents. It was found that male participants were more likely than females to engage in sexual self-disclosure and to correspondingly respond to cyber partners' sexual disclosure. Results showed that the greater the anonymity, the greater the intent for sexual self-disclosure. Participants exhibited greater reply intent when cyber partners self-disclosed sexual topics with greater intimacy, and the effect of topic intimacy was more pronounced in male participants. The findings suggest that male adolescents tend to adopt a reciprocal strategy in responding to partners' sexual disclosure on the Internet, whereas females tend to employ a conservative strategy. It was concluded that male and female adolescents revealed differential self-presentation and impression management for their sexual self-disclosing and responding on the Internet.
Whilst the majority of new students cope well with the transition to university, a number experience levels of homesickness which can adversely affect the process of adaptation. In this study the relationship between homesickness and self-disclosure, seen as a possible mediating factor, was assessed in a sample of 83 students (mean age 18.0541 years, s.d.=7.055 months) at the start of their first semester and then 6 weeks later. The results showed that homesickness declined during the semester whilst levels of self-disclosure increased. A significant negative association was found between levels of self-disclosure and homesickness at both time periods. High self-disclosers experienced a significantly greater reduction in homesickness than low self-disclosers. The results showed the importance of the socially-mediated and supportive benefits of self-disclosure during this life transition.
HIV-positive men face multiple challenges when deciding whether to disclose their serostatus to sex partners. The purpose of this literature review (1996-2004) is to identify valid and reliable research results that identify factors influencing serostatus disclosure to sex partners by men who are HIV-positive. Articles included in the review were identified through an electronic search using pertinent terms related to disclosure to sex partners, followed by a search of references for additional articles. A compilation of research results for 17 articles is presented under the headings of background, contextual, and psychosocial factors influencing disclosure. An analysis of the data suggests that differences in disclosure rates vary based on sex partner factors including serostatus, relationship status, and number of sex partners. Rates of disclosure to primary sex partners ranged from 67% to 88%, suggesting that nearly one third of main sex partners were not disclosed to and were at risk of contracting HIV, whereas a pattern of lower disclosure among casual partners was evident. As the number of sex partners increased, the likelihood of disclosure to all sex partners decreased, ranging from one quarter (25%) to slightly over half (58%). In addition, perceived efficaciousness and positive outcome expectations were the most frequent theoretical constructs embedded in the research associated with disclosure, suggesting that these factors play an important role in the process of disclosure to sex partners. Interpersonal factors that positively influenced self-disclosure included spousal support, emotional investment, and communication about safe sex, including asking about a partner's serostatus. Self-disclosure was not consistently associated with safer sex. Recommendations for future research are presented, based on the results included in this review.
After defining therapist self-disclosure, we briefly discuss its theoretical foundations. We then move to our primary focus of presenting a number of suggestions for effective use of therapist self-disclosure, based on the extant empirical literature.
This article is an effort to integrate contemporary psychoanalytic and existential perspectives on intentional therapist self-disclosure. It offers a two-stage decision-making model that considers self-disclosure from the vantage points of style and internalization. Clinical and research findings are presented to support the notion that the meanings a patient attributes to a particular self-disclosure, and its power to move him or her towards greater health, is the product of a fluctuating matrix of interpersonal and intrapsychic variables. Special consideration is given to the challenges that arise during the early and termination stages of treatment and to the psychotherapy of therapists.
The challenges of peacekeeping place individuals at risk for the development of significant psychological distress (e.g., B. T. Litz, S. Orsillo, M. Freidman, P. Ehlich, & A. Batres, 1997). Self-disclosure has been shown to ameliorate psychological distress following exposure to potentially traumatic events (J. W. Pennebaker & K. D. Harber, 1993). Sharing, or self-disclosure of deployment-related experiences, was the focus of this study and was hypothesized to be associated with adaptation. As part of a larger investigation, 426 U.S. military personnel who served as peacekeepers in Somalia were administered a comprehensive psychosocial questionnaire that included measures of exposure to negative and potentially traumatic experiences, reception at homecoming, self-disclosure, and PTSD symptom severity. The results indicate that adjustment to peacekeeping is significantly related to self-disclosure, especially to supportive significant others.
This study examined the effects of written, cognitive pretraining on the development of cohesion and self-disclosure in interpersonal learning groups. Subjects in the experimental condition received a written introduction to the group experience, and subjects in the control condition received written information on the history of group psychotherapy. Results demonstrated that the experimental groups had a higher level of group cohesion than the control groups, p < .0001, but were not different on self-disclosure. The correlation between cohesion and self-disclosure was not statistically significant. The results were discussed as an extension of the empirical support for cognitive pretraining.
This study examined the relationship of a person's motives for self-disclosure and degree of self-disclosure to the congruency of personality judgment by the discloser and recipient. The subjects used were 76 pairs of close friends, members in each pair being of the same sex. Personality judgments of disclosers were executed by the disclosers themselves as well as the recipients; and disclosers were also asked to fill out (SMI) and (JSDQ). Results demonstrated that (JSDQ) had no relation to the congruency of personality judgments, but the motives had. In particular, persons who were apt to disclose based on mostly the emotional motive had the minimum congruencies on their personality judgment by disclosers and recipients.
Narrative approach suggests that finding or creating meaning in one's own negative experience is important, and one of psychotherapeutic goals may be making it possible for the person to tell his/her in experience to others in a more positive way than otherwise. On the other hand, recent studies of self-disclosure have suggested that disclosure of negative experience could be harmful to well-being or interpersonal relationship of the person. This study investigated the relationship between ways of finding meaning in negative experiences and hesitation in self-disclosure. A questionnaire about negative life experience was administered to 210 undergraduates. Results indicated that there were four different ways of finding meaning in negative experiences, and four factors of the hesitation could be classified into those having interpersonal and intra-personal negative implications. Believing that a negative experience had negative effects on life led to stronger hesitation in self-disclosure. Interpreting a negative experience positively led to less intra-personal hesitation. And holding no hope or optimistic perspective about a negative experience led to stronger interpersonal hesitation in self-disclosure.
This study examined the effects of psychotherapist ethnicity and expertise on preferences and self-disclosure. Thirty-four white Anglo American college students, 20 male and 14 female, listened to one of two matched psychotherapy tapes. The therapist was identified by background introductions as being either professional or nonprofessional and as either of Anglo American or Mexican American ethnicity. After hearing the tape, the Ss' perceptions and willingness to talk to the therapist were measured on a self-disclosure scale and an attitude-toward-therapist scale. Ss showed significantly higher self-disclosure to the therapist introduced as an Anglo American professional. The Mexican American nonprofessional also received significantly higher negative attitude-toward-therapist scores compared to the other therapist conditions.
This descriptive study examined the relationships of nurses' critical thinking ability and perceived patient self-disclosure to accuracy in nursing assessment of depression in older medical patients. The sample consisted of 120 female nurse-patient dyads. Critical thinking ability was measured by the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal. Accuracy in nursing assessment was measured by deviations between the patient's SDS observed score and the patient's SDS predicted score. The patient's predicted score was based on the relationship between the Depression Status Inventory and Self-Rating Depression Scale. Perceived patient self-disclosure was measured by a 3-point system on patients' disclosure of information on symptoms of depression. A Pearson product-moment correlation and multiple regression analysis were used to analyze the data. The result showed that nurses' education was not significantly related to accuracy in assessment but related to critical thinking ability (r = .26; p = .004). Nurses' critical thinking ability was significantly related to accuracy in nursing assessment depression (r = -.24; p = .008). Perceived patients self-disclosure was not significantly related to accuracy in nursing assessment of depression.
This study focused on some of the determinants of schematic interactional distance based on an analysis of social learning processes. It was hypothesized that closer interpersonal constructions would be associated with a more positive rather than negative self-concept, a greater rather than lesser degree of trust, and a covert positive rather than negative self-disclosure to a significant other. One hundred fifty-nine male and female undergraduate students were administered the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and Jourard's Self-Disclosure Questionnaire. Of these Ss, 82 were also given either positive or negative covert self-disclosure conditions. Interactional distances consisted of "Self" placements in relation to several key social target representations. The results supported the hypothesis regarding the relationship between self-concept and psychological distance, but only for females. There was also a tendency for more trusting females to produce closer distances than less trusting females. These results, as well as the obtained significant sex differences in distancing responses and in renditions of vertical displacements, were discussed within the context of culturally determined sex role differences.
This paper examines the ramifications of a psychotherapist's self-disclosure stimulated by the film Gloomy Sunday (Barkow, N., 1988, Universal Pictures, 1999). It describes the five-year psychoanalysis of a depressed surgeon who made serious medical errors while treating family members. Analysis provided considerable symptom relief, but decades later the patient again became depressed. His depression was precipitated by his having made a major medical error while treating a family member, his daughter, which had an almost fatal result. The surgeon then resumed psychotherapy two times a week for three years. Cultural and professional similarities between psychiatrist and patient cemented the therapeutic alliance, but the patient's medical errors when treating his family members persisted. The psychotherapist's self-disclosure stimulated by the viewing of the film became a fulcrum for renewed investigation of the patient's childhood unconscious contributions to his psychopathology. It also stimulated self-analysis regarding counter-transference issues in the therapist which was related to his own perceptions of Nazis. The resumed treatment ameliorated the patient's tendency to make medical errors. The description of both treatments is intended to deepen the understanding of a "boundary crossing" intervention that assisted psychotherapeutic progress, and to contribute to further consideration of its benefits and risks.
BACKGROUND: Distress-driven symptoms are prevalent among older primary care patients and account for a large percentage of office visits and increased medical costs. An experimental written self-disclosure protocol has been shown to reduce symptoms and use of health care services in healthy adults. Written self-disclosure as a method for reducing symptoms has not been evaluated in the primary care setting. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the feasibility of adapting an experimental written self-disclosure protocol for the primary care setting. DESIGN: Randomized, single-blind feasibility study. SETTING: University-based geriatric and internal medicine primary care clinics. PATIENTS: 45 patients 66 years of age or older without a psychiatric diagnosis. INTERVENTION: Three 20-minute writing sessions focusing on distressing experiences (in the intervention group) or health behaviors (in the control group). MEASUREMENTS: The feasibility outcomes were patient recruitment, protocol logistics, and patient and provider satisfaction. The clinical outcomes were somatic and distress symptoms, health care utilization, and associated costs. RESULTS: One third of patients screened were recruited; 96% of patients recruited completed the protocol. Clinic contact time was an average of 55 minutes per patient. Patients and providers reported high levels of satisfaction with the protocol. Reductions in symptoms were minimal for both groups. Use of outpatient services and associated costs decreased in both groups, but the reduction was twice as great in the treatment group as in the control group. CONCLUSIONS: Findings support the feasibility of implementing the protocol as a primary care intervention.