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PubMed2001

The consumption of rye bread and white bread as dimensions of health lifestyles in Finland.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this research was to describe the variation in bread consumption within social classes and to link this consumption to health-related lifestyles in Finland from 1978 until 1998. DESIGN: A cross-sectional survey on health-related behaviour and socio-demographic factors has been conducted annually since 1978. SETTING: Mailed questionnaire. SUBJECTS: A random sample of 5000 Finns aged 15-64 years has been drawn annually. The response rate has varied from 84% to 68%. RESULTS: The consumption of rye bread decreased, but among the female population a slight increase appeared in the 1990s. The consumption of rye bread was associated with a low educational level and a rural place of residence. White bread was consumed less than was rye bread. White bread was consumed more frequently by the less educated in urban areas. Contrary to white bread, the consumption of rye bread was not associated with smoking, exercise or alcohol consumption. CONCLUSIONS: The traditional place of rye bread in the Finnish dietary pattern has remained rather constant. White bread consumption has been associated with an unhealthy lifestyle. As a result, those Finns who are concerned about their health avoid white bread but seem not to associate rye bread with a healthier lifestyle. In Finland, rye bread has a different image to the image of whole-grain or dark brown bread in many other western European countries.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1999

Pharmacologic effects of cocoa and rye flour extracts on isolated guinea pig trachea.

Confectionery workers are exposed to a wide variety of organic dusts and aerosols. Previous studies with workers in a confectionery plant working with cocoa and rye flour indicate that these workers are at risk of developing adverse respiratory symptoms and lung function impairment. The effects of cocoa and rye flour extract on isolated guinea pig tracheal smooth muscle were studied using water-soluble extracts from cocoa and rye flour obtained from the studied confectionery plant. Dose-related contractions of nonsensitized guinea pig tracheal rings were demonstrated using both cocoa and rye flour extracts. Pharmacologic studies were performed by pretreating guinea pig tracheal tissue with drugs known to modulate smooth muscle contraction: atropine, indomethacin, pyrilamine, nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA), acivicin, bromophenacyl bromide (BPB), 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzoate 8-(N,N-diethylamino)octyl ester (TMB8), captopril, and capsaicin. Constrictor effects of the dust extracts were inhibited by these agents, the pattern of which depended on the dust extract. Atropine consistently and significantly reduced the contractile effects of both extracts. These observations suggest a release of parasympathetic mediators by these extracts or more directly an interaction with muscarinic receptors. In addition, the constrictor effect of cocoa and rye flour extracts was significantly, but only partially, reduced by indomethacin, pyrilamine, BPB, and TMB8. Acivicin also partially decreased the constrictor effect of cocoa extract. Pretreatment of tracheal tissue with capsaicin also decreased the constrictor effects of high concentrations of cocoa and rye flour extracts. Data suggest that cocoa and rye flour extracts cause a dose-related constriction of airway smooth muscle by non immunological mechanisms involving cholinergic pathways and airway mediators such as histamine and the products of the arachadonic acid cascade. This effect is not dependent on the presensitization of guinea pigs.

Air Pollutants, Occupational↗
PubMed2003

Whole-grain rye and wheat foods and markers of bowel health in overweight middle-aged men.

BACKGROUND: Whole-grain cereal foods including rye have been identified as providing significant health benefits that do not occur when refined-cereal foods are ingested. OBJECTIVES: Foods (90 g) containing whole-grain rye flour and whole-grain wheat flour were compared with low-fiber refined-cereal foods for their effects on markers of bowel health and the metabolic markers insulin and glucose. DESIGN: Three 4-wk interventions were undertaken in a randomized crossover design with 28 overweight men aged 40-65 y who had no history of bowel disease. Against a background intake of 14 g dietary fiber (DF), the men were fed low-fiber cereal grain foods providing 5 g DF for a total of 19 g DF/d. High-fiber wheat foods provided 18 g DF, and high-fiber rye foods provided 18 g DF, both giving a total of 32 g DF/d. Fecal samples (48-h) and fasting and postprandial blood samples were collected at the end of each period and assayed. RESULTS: Both high-fiber rye and wheat foods increased fecal output by 33-36% (P = 0.004) and reduced fecal beta-glucuronidase activity by 29% (P = 0.027). Postprandial plasma insulin was decreased by 46-49% (P = 0.0001) and postprandial plasma glucose by 16-19% (P = 0.0005). Rye foods were associated with significantly (P = 0.0001) increased plasma enterolactone (47% and 71%) and fecal butyrate (26% and 36%), relative to wheat and low-fiber options, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: High-fiber rye and wheat food consumption improved several markers of bowel and metabolic health relative to that of low-fiber food. Fiber from rye appears more effective than that from wheat in overall improvement of biomarkers of bowel health.

4-Butyrolactone↗
PubMed1993

Baked rye products modify cholesterol metabolism and crypt cell proliferation rates in rats.

Young adult male rats were made hypercholesterolemic by feeding cholesterol (+ cholic acid). The effect of rye crispbread on hepatic and plasma cholesterol concentrations, hepatic cholesterol synthesis, small intestinal cell turnover and fecal output was investigated. Diets containing 50 and 75% rye crispbread (g dry wt) were compared with positive control diets of similar gross composition, in which the insoluble component of rye was matched with cellulose and the soluble component with guar gum. A negative control diet containing no non-starch polysaccharide was also included. Cholesterol supplementation was maintained in half the rats on each diet. Rye caused a marked increase in fecal output that was greater than that seen in the positive control groups. However, crypt cell proliferation in the small intestine was less than that seen in the high fiber control groups. Rye reduced total plasma cholesterol concentrations only in those rats that continued to receive the high cholesterol diet. However, whether or not cholesterol was fed, the presence of nonstarch polysaccharide caused a decrease in liver cholesterol concentrations. Rye caused a marked increase in hepatic cholesterol synthesis over both the positive controls and the rats fed a fiber-free diet. This implies that rye causes a loss of cholesterol from the body, probably due to malabsorption of bile acids and cholesterol.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

Effect of preincubation temperature on in vitro light saturated photosystem I activity in thylakoids isolated from cold hardened and nonhardened rye.

Thylakoids isolated from winter rye (Secale cereale L. cv Muskateer) grown at 5 degrees C or 20 degrees C were compared with respect to their capacity to exhibit an increase in light saturated rates of photosystem I (PSI) electron transport (ascorbate/dichlorophenolindophenol --> methylviologen) after dark preincubation at temperatures between 0 and 60 degrees C. Thylakoids isolated in the presence or absence of Na(+)/Mg(2+) from 20 degrees C grown rye exhibited transient, 40 to 60% increases in light saturated rates of PSI activity at all preincubation temperatures between 5 and 60 degrees C. This increase in PSI activity appeared to occur independently of the electron donor employed. The capacity to exhibit this in vitro induced increase in PSI activity was examined during biogenesis of rye thylakoids under intermittent light conditions at 20 degrees C. Only after exposure to 48 cycles (1 cycle = 118 minutes dark + 2 min light) of intermittent light did rye thylakoids exhibit an increase in light saturated rates of PSI activity even though PSI activity could be detected after 24 cycles. In contrast to thylakoids from 20 degrees C grown rye, thylakoids isolated from 5 degrees C grown rye in the presence of Na(+)/Mg(2+) exhibited no increase in light saturated PSI activity after preincubation at any temperature between 0 and 60 degrees C. This was not due to damage to PSI electron transport in thylakoids isolated from 5 degrees C grown plants since light saturated PSI activity was 60% higher in 5 degrees C thylakoids than 20 degrees C thylakoids prior to in vitro dark preincubation. However, a two-fold increase in light saturated PSI activity of 5 degrees C thylakoids could be observed after dark preincubation only when 5 degrees C thylakoids were initially isolated in the absence of Na(+)/Mg(2+). We suggest that 5 degrees C rye thylakoids, isolated in the presence of these cations, exhibit light saturated PSI electron transport which may be closer to the maximum rate attainable in vitro than 20 degrees C thylakoids and hence cannot be increased further by dark preincubation.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1994

IgE-binding components of wheat, rye, barley and oats recognized by immunoblotting analysis with sera from adult atopic dermatitis patients.

The allergen extracts of wheat, rye, barley and oats flours were characterized by IgE-immunoblotting with serum samples from 40 adult patients; 35 patients with atopic dermatitis, one with rhinitis and four with urticaria. All these patients had been positive when skin-prick testing was carried out with one or more of the four flour extracts or displayed one or more positive cereal RAST results. Four non-atopic sera were used as negative controls. Acidic and neutral protein extracts of wheat, rye, barley and oats flours were processed for the immunoblotting experiments and 35 patients appeared positive in IgE immunoblotting with wheat and rye, 32 with barley and 33 with oats. The IgE immunoblots showed polyspecific binding patterns; wheat exhibited 36 IgE stained bands, rye 35, barley 33 and oats 10. Eighteen of the IgE stained bands could be classified as intermediate allergens for wheat, 23 for rye and 15 for barley. The 66 kDa protein in oats was visualized by 28 out of 33 sera (84%), however, there was evident non-specific binding to this region and thus it may also represent lectin-like binding. The most frequent staining with wheat extract was seen in the 26 kDa protein region (15/35, 43%), with rye in the 40 kDa (16/35, 46%) and with barley in the 26 and 46 kDa protein bands (14/32, 44%). Simultaneous staining with wheat, rye and barley extracts were observed with 16 bands suggesting crossreactivity between these cereals.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Eosinophilic esophagitis in adults--no clinical relevance of wheat and rye sensitizations.

BACKGROUND: Eosinophilic esophagitis (EE) is often associated with concomitant atopic diseases. In children with EE in whom food allergens have been identified as causative factors, elemental and elimination diets result in an improvement or resolution of symptoms. Most adult EE patients are sensitized to aeroallergens, which cross-react with plant-derived food allergens, most commonly to grass pollen and cereals. AIMS OF THE STUDY: To investigate the clinical relevance of the sensitization to wheat and rye, and the efficacy of an allergen-specific elimination diet in adult EE patients. METHODS: Six patients (five men, one women) with permanently active EE sensitized to grass pollen and the cereals wheat and rye underwent a double-blind placebo-controlled food challenge and were kept on an elimination diet avoiding wheat and rye for 6 weeks. RESULTS: The challenge tests with wheat and rye did not provoke any EE symptoms in all patients. The elimination diet failed in reducing disease activity. Although one patient noticed an improvement of symptoms, endoscopic and histopathologic findings remained unchanged. CONCLUSIONS: In adult EE patients, sensitization to wheat and rye does not seem causative for EE. Elimination diet is not a reliable and efficient therapeutic measure in EE patients sensitized to wheat and rye. Low specific immunoglobulin-E levels to wheat and rye may be a consequence of the underlying grass pollen allergy.

Adult↗
PubMed1980

Yeast, rye, and calf histones. Similarities and differences detected by electrophoretic and immunological methods.

Yeast histones H2A, H2B, and H3 were purified using the standard histone purification procedures of differential solubility and exclusion chromatography. Yeast histone H4 was isolated by the same methods in a fraction containing one other major protein component. The four yeast core histones were identified by their reactions with antisera against rye and (or) calf histone fractions as well as by their electrophoretic, chromatographic, and solubility properties. The immunological distances between yeast H2B and rye and calf H2B fractions are substantial, as is the rye-calf distance for H2B. The immunological distance between yeast H2A and rye H2A is also large and is similar to the rye H2A - calf H2A distance. On the other hand, the immunological distance between yeast H3 and rye and calf H3 is much greater than that between rye H3 and calf H3. These and other results indicate that yeast H3 differs appreciably from the H3 of higher eucaryotes.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

The mapping of QTLS for chlorophyll content and responsiveness to gibberellic (GA3) and abscisic (ABA) acids in rye.

Genetic maps containing molecular markers are useful tools for the identification of genes underlying quantitative traits (QTLs). Three traits important for plant physiology, i.e. chlorophyll content, sensitivity to GA and sensitivity to ABA, were evaluated for 99 F2 families of the DS2 x RXL10 rye mapping population. The observed variation in the chlorophyll content in rye leaves was shown to be under the genetic control of four independent QTLs. They were located on the following chromosome arms: 1RL (QChc-1R.1), 3RS (QChc-3R.1), 4RL (QChc-4R.1) and 5RL (QChc-5R.1) The marker-assisted selection of recombinants comprising positively-acting alleles at these loci may significantly increase the chlorophyll content in rye leaves, which should result in a higher efficiency of photosynthesis. A decreasing of plant height in rye is one of the major aims of breeders selecting for lodging resistance. The polymorphism of genes controlling sensitivity to gibberellic acid may be the basis for a potential selection strategy. Three QTLs underlying the sensitivity of rye seedlings to GA were located on chromosomes 5RL (QGar-5R.1), 1RL (QGar-1R.1) and on 7RL (QGar-7R.1). The dwarfing allele of a Dw1 locus present in line RXL10 was mapped in the same position as the QGar-5R.1 gene. Sensitivity to ABA plays an important role in imposing dormancy in rye grain. Three QTLs affecting sensitivity to ABA were found. They were mapped on chromosomes 1RS (QAbr-1R.1), 2R in the centromeric region (QAbr-2R.1) and on 5RL (QAbr-5R.1). QAbr-5R.1, Dw1 and QGar-5R.1 are located in the same position on the distal part of the 5RL chromosome arm, which suggests that they belong to a single locus for a major regulatory gene controlling the development of rye plants.

Abscisic Acid↗
PubMed2005

[Features of crossability, haploidy and polyembryony in hybrid combinations between common barley Hordeum vulgare L. (2n = 14) and wheat-rye substitution lines Triticum aestivum L., cultivar Saratovskaya 29/Secale cereale L., cultivar Onokhoiskaya].

The role of individual chromosomes of rye in the manifestation of crossability and seedling development in hybrid combinations between common barley Hordeum vulgare L., cultivar Nepolegayushchii (2n = 14) and five wheat-rye substitution lines Triticum aestivum L., cultivar Saratovskaya 29/Secale cereale L., cultivar Onokhoiskaya (2n = 40 wheat + 2 rye chromosomes). Crossability, which was measured by two parameters--frequency of set grains and frequency of grains with embryos--was shown to be significantly affected by each of the five rye chromosomes examined: 1R, 2R, 3R, 5R, and 6R; the development of barley haploids was affected by rye chromosomes 1 R, 3R, and 5R. We were the first to demonstrate that polyembryony could be induced by mutual effects of barley cytoplasm and rye chromosome 1R. Possible mechanisms controlling the development of haploids and twins in hybrid combinations H. vulgare x T. aestivum/S. cereale are discussed. The conclusion is drawn that hybrid combinations between common barley and wheat-rye substitution lines can serve as new models for studying incompatibility mechanisms in distant crosses and genetic control of parthenogenesis.

Chimera↗
PubMed1996

Rye flour allergens associated with baker's asthma. Correlation between in vivo and in vitro activities and comparison with their wheat and barley homologues.

BACKGROUND: A number of wheat and barley flour proteins that belong to the cereal alpha-amylase/trypsin inhibitor family have been identified as major allergens associated with baker's asthma. However, the allergenic role of this protein family had not been investigated in rye. OBJECTIVE: To study the allergenicity of five purified proteins from rye flour which belong to the same inhibitor family, as well as to compare their properties with those of their wheat and barley homologues. METHODS: In vivo skin-prick tests were carried out in 21 patients with radioallergosorbent test (RAST) 2-3 to rye and allergic sensitization mainly to this cereal flour. In addition, sera from all these patients were used to assay the IgE binding capacity of dot blotted purified proteins. RESULTS: Three of the rye proteins tested, namely Sec c 1, RDAI-1 and RDAI-3, provoked positive skin-prick tests in more than 50% of patients, although their in vitro reactivity was lower. Different reactivities were found for the rye components compared with their wheat and barley homologues. Statistical analyses showed a significant correlation between the results of in vivo and in vitro tests for seven out of the nine purified proteins considered in this study. CONCLUSION: Members of the rye alpha-amylase inhibitor family are main allergens involved in allergic reactions to cereal flours. However, different allergenic behaviours were found between homologous allergens from rye, barley, and wheat.

Allergens↗
PubMed1991

In situ hybridization as a rapid means to assess meiotic pairing and detection of alien DNA transfers in interphase cells of wide crosses involving wheat and rye.

The objectives of this study were to determine if biotin-labelled total genomic DNA of rye (Secale cereale L.) could be used to (i) preferentially label rye meiotic chromosomes in triticale and (ii) detect translocation stocks at interphase and/or early prophase by in situ hybridization. Welsh triticale, a wheat-rye segmental amphiploid, and Kavkaz wheat, a wheat-rye translocation were used. The results indicated that labelled chromosomes of rye and unlabelled chromosomes of wheat could be observed throughout all meiotic stages in the triticale. For Kavkaz wheat, the presence of the translocated 1RS chromosome arm of rye was detected at the interphase or very early prophase stage. Rapid assessment of feasibility of gene transfers and detection of alien DNA in somatic cells at the interphase stage by in situ hybridization allows for rapid decision-making and saves time and expense in plant breeding programs.

Chromosomes↗
PubMed1983

Comparative physico-chemical studies on purified trypsin inhibitors from the endosperm of barley, rye, and wheat.

The dominant trypsin inhibitors of the endosperm of barley, rye and wheat were investigated in a series of comparative studies. The barley and rye inhibitors showed a reaction of partial immunochemical identity, whereas no immunological cross-reactions between the wheat inhibitor and the inhibitors from barley and rye were detected. The molecular weight of the barley inhibitor is about 14,500, and of the rye and wheat inhibitors about 12,000. The three inhibitors had very similar amino acid compositions, but the wheat inhibitor seemed to contain nine disulfide bridges whereas the barley and rye inhibitor contain five and four, respectively. This may explain the higher stability of the wheat inhibitor towards proteolytic inactivation by pepsin and chymotrypsin. All three inhibitors were very stable to temperatures at 100 degrees C. The barley inhibitor was much less active against porcine trypsin, and especially human trypsin, than against bovine trypsin, whereas the inhibition by the rye and wheat inhibitor was less dependent on the origin of the enzyme.

Amino Acids↗
PubMed2006

Candidate gene identification of an aluminum-activated organic acid transporter gene at the Alt4 locus for aluminum tolerance in rye (Secale cereale L.).

Among cereal crops, rye is one of the most tolerant species to aluminum. A candidate gene approach was used to determine the likely molecular identity of an Al tolerance locus (Alt4). Using PCR primers designed from a wheat aluminum tolerance gene encoding an aluminum-activated malate transporter (TaALMT1), a rye gene (ScALMT1) was amplified, cloned and sequenced. Subsequently, the ScALMT1 gene of rye was found to be located on 7RS by PCR amplification using the wheat-rye addition lines. SNP polymorphisms for this gene were detected among the parents of three F(2) populations that segregate for the Alt4 locus. A map of the rye chromosome 7R, including the Alt4 locus ScALMT1 and several molecular markers, was constructed showing a complete co-segregation between Alt4 and ScALMT1. Furthermore, expression experiments were carried out to clarify the function of this candidate gene. Briefly, the ScALMT1 gene was found to be primarily expressed in the root apex and upregulated when aluminum was present in the medium. Five-fold differences in the expression were found between the Al tolerant and the Al non-tolerant genotypes. Additionally, much higher expression was detected in the rye genotypes than the moderately tolerant "Chinese Spring" wheat cultivar. These results suggest that the Alt4 locus encodes an aluminum-activated organic acid transporter gene that could be utilized to increase Al tolerance in Al sensitive plant species. Finally, TaALMT1 homologous sequences were identified in different grasses and in the dicotyledonous plant Phaseolus vulgaris. Our data support the hypothesis of the existence of a common mechanism of Al tolerance encoded by a gene located in the homoeologous group four of cereals.

Aluminum↗
PubMed2004

Heterogeneity in the fine structure of alkali-extractable arabinoxylans isolated from two rye flours with high and low breadmaking quality and their coexistence with other cell wall components.

The alkali extractable (AE) arabinoxylans from two rye flours differing in baking quality were studied following sequential extraction of water-unextractable and starch-free rye flour residue with saturated barium hydroxide solution, water and 1 M sodium hydroxide solution (Ba, BaH, and Na, respectively), and further fractionation of isolated fractions by ammonium sulfate precipitation. (1)H NMR and sugar analyses of AE subfractions provided evidence for the presence of lowly branched arabinoxylans (average arabinose-to-xylose ratio, Ara/Xyl approximately 0.5), containing mainly un- and monosubstituted xylopyranosyl residues (Xylp) in the chain. The proportion of this subfraction decreased from 50% in the Ba fraction to 35 and 17% in the Na and BaH fractions, respectively. Other subfractions, rich in both mono- and disubstituted Xylp, represented arabinoxylan populations with intermediate (Ara/Xyl approximately 0.8) and high substitution degree (Ara/Xyl approximately 1.1). The Ba and Na fractions contained phenolic compounds, whereas they were absent in the BaH fraction. The higher ratio of such phenolic compounds to arabinose (PhC/Ara) found in AE arabinoxylans from rye flour of inferior baking quality was one of the most pronounced differences between arabinoxylan populations from rye flours with high and low baking quality. The arabinoxylans from rye flour of high baking quality present in Ba and Na fractions had slightly higher apparent molecular weights (MWs) when compared to those from rye flour with low baking quality. The arabinoxylans present in the BaH fractions, characterized by the highest MWs, had similar MWs.

Barium Compounds↗
PubMed2004

Enzymatic solubilization of arabinoxylans from native, extruded, and high-shear-treated rye bran by different endo-xylanases and other hydrolyzing enzymes.

The overall objective of this research was to find a new way to valorize rye bran, by producing a gellifier from the enzymatic solubilization of arabinoxylans (AX). The effects of three pure endo-xylanases from Aspergillus niger (Xyl-1), Talaromyces emersonii (Xyl-2), and Bacillus subtilis (Xyl-3) and of Grindamyl S100 (GS100), a commercial enzyme preparation containing a Xyl-1 type endo-xylanase, were tested on rye bran to study the solubilization of water-unextractable arabinoxylans (WUAX). Eight different extrusion-treated rye brans were also used as substrates to find the best physical treatment to facilitate enzymatic arabinoxylan (AX) solubilization. Arabinoxylans were better solubilized from the bran extruded at high temperature using Xyl-3. This enzyme was then tested in combination with pure (1,4)-beta-d-arabinoxylan arabinofuranohydrolase (AXH) and endo-beta-d-glucanase or ferulic acid esterase (FAE), from A. niger. Only beta-glucanase in combination with Xyl-3 improved the AX extraction, but it did not have a marked effect on the viscosity of the extracts. Xyl-3 was then tested on a high-shear-treated rye bran, and results were compared to those obtained with the high-temperature-extruded rye bran. The high-shear treatment did not improve the bran AX enzymatic solubilization. The combination of FAE with Xyl-1 or Xyl-3 did not improve the AX extraction from untreated and high-shear-treated rye bran. Finally, to study the gelation capacity of the enzymatically solubilized AX, the effect of the hydrogen peroxide/horseradish peroxidase (H(2)O(2)/POD) was tested on the Xyl-3 high-temperature-extruded bran extracts. Solubilized AX did not gel in the presence of the oxidizing system.

Dietary Fiber↗
PubMed2004

Levels of organochlorine pesticides in soils and rye plant tissues in a field study.

The organochlorine pesticides are lipophilic and persistent and tend to accumulate in soils and growing plants. The contamination of growing plants occurs by adhesion of volatile substances from the air to the plant surface and by the migration of contaminants through xylem in inner ascendant transport. Persistent organochlorine pesticides (HCB, alpha,gamma-HCH, pp'DDE, op'DDT, pp'DDT) levels were determined in soils and rye plants. The aims of the study were the monitoring of organochlorine pesticide concentrations and the comparison of these levels among soil, rye straw, and rye grains. Fifty soil samples and 50 rye plant (50 straw and 50 grains) samples were taken. The GLC-ECD chromatographic results indicated the following contamination levels distributed among soil, straw, and grains: HCB (0.7-1.2-0.7 microg.kg(-1)), alpha-HCH (0.6-3.4-1.2 microg.kg(-1)), gamma-HCH (1.8-27.3-4.4 microg.kg(-1)), Sigma-HCH (2.5-30.7-5.6 microg.kg(-1)), pp'DDE (1.0-7.8-5.5 microg.kg(-1)), op'DDT (16.1-20.4-17.0 microg.kg(-1)), pp'DDT (38.0-41.7-49.6 microg.kg(-1)), and Sigma-DDT (54.2-63.2-72.1 microg.kg(-1)). The study verified the presence of organochlorine pesticides in the Mexican agricultural environment and their migration from soil to the growing rye plants. However, DDT has been banned since 1999 for sanitary reasons, and Lindane is applied only in some cases as a seed dresser. The determined organochlorine pesticide levels in rye plants are low, at residual levels that are below Codex Alimentarius Commission maximum residue limits.

DDT↗
PubMed2002

Phloem fortification in rye bread elevates serum enterolactone level.

OBJECTIVE: To analyse the lignan content of phloem powder enriched rye bread and to study the dose-response relationship of the effect of dietary plant lignans derived from phloem on intestinal production of enterolactone by measuring enterolactone concentration in serum. DESIGN: A randomized double-blind supplementation trial. SUBJECTS: Seventy-five non-smoking men recruited by newspaper advertisements. INTERVENTION: Subjects were randomized to three study groups receiving either rye bread high in phloem (HP, 14% of rye flour substituted with phloem powder), rye bread low in phloem (LP, 7% of rye flour substituted with phloem powder) or placebo rye bread. Participants consumed 70 g of study bread daily for 4 weeks and provided serum samples for enterolactone analysis at baseline and at the end of the intervention. RESULTS: There was a significant increase in serum enterolactone concentration in the LP and HP groups compared with the placebo group (P=0.009 and P=0.003, respectively). Considerable interindividual differences were observed in the response to dietary lignans within the study groups. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that plant lignans attached to insoluble fibre layer in phloem can be further metabolized and converted to enterolactone presumably by the bacteria present in the colon. Phloem powder is useful source of lignans for functional foods aimed to elevate serum enterolactone levels. SPONSORSHIP: Phloem powder and the study breads were provided by Finnpettu Oy and Linkosuo Oy, respectively. The clinical study work was sponsored in part by Oy Jurilab Ltd.

4-Butyrolactone↗