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PubMedDate not supplied

Individual differences in reading subprocesses: relationships between reading ability, lexical access, and eye movement control.

This study examines the relationship between individual reading subprocesses and general reading ability in college students. The reading measures included eye movements while reading a passage, lexical decision latencies, comprehension, and vocabulary size. The results indicate that a distinct relation exists between reading speed and fixation behaviour associated with regressions through a text. About half the variability in comprehension scores can be predicted by subjects' performance on nonword lexical decisions, gaze durations, and vocabulary scores. These findings are discussed with reference to past studies using similar reading measures.

Eye Movements↗
PubMed1994

Deaf children reading fables: using ASL summaries to improve reading comprehension.

This study was a cooperative effort of two university-based reading educators and a reading teacher-librarian who is deaf. An intervention technique was designed based on studies emphasizing the importance of using American Sign Language (ASL) to build deaf children's background knowledge before they read materials that support the learning of English. The teacher used the ASL summary technique; that is, she signed a summary of a fable in ASL without giving the moral lesson before having the students read the fable in printed English. "Retelling scores" were computed for seven deaf elementary school students who read some fables with the ASL intervention and read other fables without the intervention. The students' responses in telling the moral lesson of each fable were also scored. The data showed that the ASL summary technique increased the quantity and quality of the retelling scores; it also improved deaf readers' comprehension of the moral lessons of the fables. A description of the ASL summary technique and a discussion of its implications for teachers are provided.

Child↗
PubMed1994

Use of assisted reading to improve reading rate, word accuracy, and comprehension with ESL Spanish-speaking students.

The present experiment examined the effectiveness of an assisted reading program on reading rates and comprehension of three Spanish-speaking students learning English. The effects of assisted reading on reading rate, word accuracy, and comprehension were examined using a multiple-baseline design across individuals. Increases in words read correctly per minute with repeated readings of the passage and on new passages, decreases in errors per minute, and increases in comprehension were noted.

Child↗
PubMed2000

Simultaneous measurement of reading growth, gender, and relative-age effects: many-faceted Rasch applied to CBM reading scores.

Reading growth, gender effects, relative-age effects, and reading probe difficulty for reading were simultaneously assessed on one linear scale. The reading measure chosen was the Curriculum Based Measurement (CBM), words-read-correctly. A sample of 1619 students in Grades Two through Seven was employed. There is growth in reading within all grades but decreasing growth with increasing grade level. There are consistent gender differences favoring girls but the differences are equivalent to only one month's growth. There is no consistent evidence of a relative-age effect across grades. Two strategies for linking data across grades were compared and found to produce results consistent with each other and individual grade results.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1986

The relationship between specific reading retardation, general reading backwardness and behavioural problems in a large sample of Dunedin boys: a longitudinal study from five to eleven years.

Parent and teacher reports of behaviour problems were obtained at ages 5, 7, 9 and 11 years for three groups of boys: specific reading retarded (N = 18), general reading backward (N = 22), and those with no severe reading disability (N = 436). At school entry, both groups of reading disabled boys were reported as having more behaviour problems, and the level of problems increased during their early school years. The results suggest that behaviour problems pre-date reading disability, while reading failure further exacerbates the existing problem behaviour.

Aggression↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Effects of tutoring in phonological and early reading skills on students at risk for reading disabilities.

This study examined the effectiveness of nonprofessional tutors in a phonologically based reading treatment similar to those in which successful reading outcomes have been demonstrated. Participants were 23 first graders at risk for learning disability who received intensive one-to-one tutoring from noncertified tutors for 30 minutes, 4 days a week, for one school year. Tutoring included instruction in phonological skills, letter-sound correspondence, explicit decoding, rime analysis, writing, spelling, and reading phonetically controlled text. At year end, tutored students significantly outperformed untutored control students on measures of reading, spelling, and decoding. Effect sizes ranged from .42 to 1.24. Treatment effects diminished at follow-up at the end of second grade, although tutored students continued to significantly outperform untutored students in decoding and spelling. Findings suggest that phonologically based reading instruction for first graders at risk for learning disability can be delivered by nonteacher tutors. Our discussion addresses the character of reading outcomes associated with tutoring, individual differences in response to treatment, and the infrastructure required for nonprofessional tutoring programs.

Certification↗
PubMed1992

A reading level match study of nonword reading skills in poor readers with varying IQ.

This study evaluated the hypothesis that poor readers are characterized by poor nonword reading skills, but that a specific deficit, as opposed to a developmental lag, in nonword reading will be found only in subjects whose reading is discrepant from intellectual ability. To test this hypothesis, we measured nonword reading skills in 93 (64 male, 29 female) third-grade poor readers and 54 (37 male, 17 female) fifth-grade poor readers (with and without reading/IQ discrepancies) who were matched to 147 (81 male, 66 female) nondisabled first graders on word identification skills. Results showed third- and fifth-grade poor readers to be significantly more impaired than word-identification level match first graders on all measures on nonword reading. These findings were not related to the verbal IQ level within the poor reader groups and, thus, provide strong evidence for a deficit in nonword reading skills that is not explained by verbal intelligence.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2002

Identification and remediation of reading difficulties based on successive processing deficits and delay in general reading.

Widespread learning problems among South African children are associated with the apartheid era and show a need for effective reading programs. In selecting these programs, it is useful to differentiate between children with dyslexia and children whose reading is poor because teaching was inadequate. In this study, the Woodcock Tests of Reading Mastery-Revised and tests modelled on the Cognitive Assessment System were used to define a group of children with deficits in successive processing associated with dyslexia and a group of children with general reading delay. There were two girls and five boys in each group. For the children with successive processing deficit, the mean age was 9 yr., 8 mo. For the other group, mean age was 9 yr., 3 mo. Control groups were matched for age and sex and kind of reading difficulty. The first group received Das's PASS Reading Enhancement Program, and the second participated in a remedial program based on Whole Language principles. The treatment groups received 24 1-hr. long sessions. Gains in successive processing were shown for the first group, as measured by the tests modelled on Cognitive Assessment System subtests but not for the second group. Both groups showed gains in phonics and word identification, relative to their respective control groups, suggesting the respective intervention program was effective for each group.

Black or African American↗
PubMed1987

A developmental approach to reading disability: accuracy and speed criteria of normal and deficient reading skill.

The constructs of accuracy and speed were adopted as performance criteria against which to define 2 clinical samples of disabled readers. Accuracy-disabled subjects had failed to achieve reliable age-appropriate word recognition skills. Rate-disabled readers were age-appropriate in word recognition accuracy but deficient in reading speed. These disabled readers were compared to fluent normal children selected to be reading at the same level of accuracy as the rate-disabled subjects but at a significantly faster rate. All aspects of the accuracy-disabled subjects' reading systems proved deficient, and these children were less able to learn new sound-symbol associations in a task simulating initial reading acquisition. The rate-disabled subjects exhibited a basic deficit in word recognition speed, compromised accuracy when reading in context, and compromised spelling when competing visual patterns were available. A multidimensional oral language impairment was found to accompany the accuracy disability, while the rate disability appeared restricted to language in its visible form and the naming of visual representations. A visual naming speed impairment was associated with both profiles of deficient reading skill.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1983

The value of the peripheral blood smear in anemic inpatients. The laboratory's reading v a physician's reading.

Since physicians are routinely taught to review the peripheral blood smear results of all anemic patients, we analyzed the diagnostic value of the laboratory's blood smear reading and the incremental value of a physician's personal reading in anemic inpatients. Blood smear abnormalities, as reported by the laboratory and two hematologists, were poorly reproducible, with only five of the 11 types of abnormalities being more reproducible than could be expected by chance. The blood smear performed no better than RBC indices in detecting probable iron deficiency or low serum levels of folate or vitamin B12. In anemias not caused by deficiency states, the blood smear reading performed by the hospital laboratory provided unique information in 6% of the cases and helpful information in another 25%, but the additional reading performed by a hematologist never provided unique information and provided incremental helpful information in only 4% of the cases. The peripheral blood smears of all anemic inpatients should be read by the hospital laboratory, but in our hospital, a routine additional personal reading by a physician had limited incremental value and could be reserved for selected cases.

Anemia↗
PubMed1988

Investigating the boundaries of reading units across ages and reading levels.

In Experiments 1 and 2 first-, third-, and seventh-grade children and college subjects circled the letter a while reading passages constructed of words familiar to first graders. First graders made more errors on the letter a embedded in a word than on the word a, whereas the converse was true of the other age groups. In Experiments 3 and 4 first-, second-, fourth-, and seventh-grade children and college students read passages and circled the letter t, making more errors on the common word the than on other words and on correctly spelled than on misspelled words. The effect of misspelling the other words increased with age and reading skill. Our combined results suggest that reading unit size increases with age and reading ability and that, whereas younger children, like adults, unitize common words, the unitization of less common words increases as word configurations become more familiar.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Development of phonological and orthographic processing in reading aloud, in silent reading, and in spelling: a four-year longitudinal study.

The development of phonological and orthographic processing was studied from the middle of Grade 1 to the end of Grade 4 (age 6; 6-10 years) using the effects of regularity and of lexicality in reading aloud and in spelling tasks, and using the effect of pseudohomophony in a silent reading task. In all the tasks, signs of reliance on phonological processing were found even when indicators of reliance on orthographic processing appeared. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to determine which early skills predict later reading achievement. Pseudoword and irregular word scores were used as measures for phonological and orthographic skills, respectively. Only middle of Grade 1 phonological reading skills accounted for independent variance in end of Grade 4 orthographic skills. Conversely, from the middle to the end of Grade 1, and from the end of Grade 1 to the end of Grade 4, both orthographic and phonological skills accounted for independent variance in later orthographic skills. In the prediction of phonological skills, only the unique contribution of earlier phonological skills was significant. Thus, phonological and orthographic processing appear to be reciprocally related, rather than independent components of written word recognition. However, very early reliance on the phonological procedure seems to be the bootstrapping mechanism for reading acquisition.

Child↗
PubMed2002

Reading with multiple preferred retinal loci: implications for training a more efficient reading strategy.

The reading strategies in individuals with central scotomas and more than one preferred retinal locus (PRL) were investigated using a scanning laser ophthalmoscope in order to understand the visual requirements that lead to the need to use more than one PRL during reading. It was found that: (1) PRL function can be deduced from variation in PRL usage for different size and length of isolated words; (2) each subject used two or more PRL to accomplish the functions of global viewing and discrimination, suggesting that these are two of the minimum requirements for reading; (3) reading strategies can change depending on the position of words in visual space; (4) line-changing strategies can revert to horizontal and vertical component movements. These findings have implications for improving reading performance through training in patients with central scotomas.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

A blank look in reading: the effect of blank space on the identification of letters and words during reading.

Two experiments investigated the effect of visual blank space on reading by varying the amount of interletter and interline blank space in prose passages. Increasing interletter blank spacing slowed the reading process overall, presumably because it disrupted the unitization of words and word identification, but it also improved the identification of the letters within words. By contrast, increasing interline blank spacing sped up the reading process overall, while also improving the identification of words and the letters within words, presumably because the extra spacing reduced the amount of visual information that was processed during reading. The latter finding supports the conclusion that information from surrounding lines of single-spaced text may interfere with reading.

Comprehension↗
PubMed2005

Reading acquisition, developmental dyslexia, and skilled reading across languages: a psycholinguistic grain size theory.

The development of reading depends on phonological awareness across all languages so far studied. Languages vary in the consistency with which phonology is represented in orthography. This results in developmental differences in the grain size of lexical representations and accompanying differences in developmental reading strategies and the manifestation of dyslexia across orthographies. Differences in lexical representations and reading across languages leave developmental "footprints" in the adult lexicon. The lexical organization and processing strategies that are characteristic of skilled reading in different orthographies are affected by different developmental constraints in different writing systems. The authors develop a novel theoretical framework to explain these cross-language data, which they label a psycholinguistic grain size theory of reading and its development.

Aptitude↗
PubMed2004

The relationship between reading achievement and morphological word analysis in deaf and hearing students matched for reading level.

This study extends the findings of Gaustad, Kelly, Payne, and Lylak (2002), which showed that deaf college students and hearing middle school students appeared to have approximately the same morphological knowledge and word segmentation skills. Because the average grade level reading abilities for the two groups of students were also similar, those research findings suggested that deaf students' morphological development was progressing as might be expected relative to reading level. This study further examined the specific relationship between morphologically based word identification skills and reading achievement levels, as well as differences in the error patterns of deaf and hearing readers. Comparison of performance between pairs of deaf college students and hearing middle school students matched for reading achievement level shows significant superiority of younger hearing participants for skills relating especially to the meaning of derivational morphemes and roots, and the segmentation of words containing multiple types of morphemes. Group subtest comparisons and item analysis comparisons of specific morpheme knowledge and word segmentation show clear differences in the morphographic skills of hearing middle school readers over deaf college students, even though they were matched and appear to read at the same grade levels, as measured by standardized tests.

Achievement↗