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At least 109 records · Page 6Linked to original sources
PubMed1998

Incidence of patulin in apple juice concentrates produced in Turkey.

A total of 215 apple juice concentrate samples from three different producers in Turkey were analyzed for patulin using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. The detection limit of patulin in single strength apple juice at a sugar content of 11.2 degrees Brix was lower than 5 micrograms/l. Patulin was detected in all of the samples analyzed, at concentrations ranging from 7 to 375 micrograms/l. Of the samples, 43.5% were found to exceed a patulin contamination level of 50 microgram/l.

Beverages↗
PubMed1982

Patulin mycotoxicosis in the rat: toxicology, pathology and clinical pathology.

Patulin, a secondary metabolite produced by species of the genera Penicillium and Aspergillus, was administered to male Sprague-Dawley rats, weighing 50-60 g, by the oral, sc and ip routes. The 72-hr LD50 values (in mg/kg weight) were: oral, 55.0; sc, 11.0; ip, 10.0. Mortality was greatest 0-24 hr after administration by the oral and sc routes and 49-72 hr after ip dosing. Gross alterations consisted of gastric and intestinal hyperaemia and distention. Histopathological alterations consisted principally of ulceration and inflammation of the stomach. Patulin was administered orally to rats daily or every other day for 2 wk at doses of 50 or 75% of the oral LD50. Mortality in the treated groups was greater than in controls but was similar for all treated groups. No evidence of cumulative toxicity was found and the gross and histopathological alterations were similar to those found in the LD50 studies. Clinicopathological alterations included metabolic alkalosis with respiratory compensation, oliguria, decreased serum sodium, elevated blood glucose, reduced plasma protein and an elevated total leucocyte count which differential leucocyte counts indicated to be due to neutrophilia. The inflammatory alterations observed in the gastro-intestinal tract may be due to the irritant properties of patulin or to an alteration in the gastro-intestinal flora by the antibiotic activity of patulin.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Analysis of patulin in apple juice by diphasic dialysis extraction with in situ acylation and mass spectrometric determination.

A procedure combining diphasic dialysis extraction with in situ acylation and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) determination was developed for detection and quantification of the mycotoxin patulin in apple juice. Apple juice samples spiked with 4-N,N-dimethylaminopyridine were dialyzed using methane chloride and acetic anhydride inside dialysis tubing. Patulin was derivatized into its acetate and collected in the tubing after diphasic dialysis and was directly determined using GC/MS with the selective ion monitoring mode without further concentration and cleanup steps. Quantification was carried out by a calibration curve with an internal standard of correlation. The appropriate parameters of both dialysis and derivatization were examined. The linear range of the calibration curve was found to be 10-250 microg/L for patulin, and the limit of quantification was 10 microg/L. Levels of patulin ranging from 0 to 107.2 microg/L with 77-109% recovery were found in 10 apple samples. The technique combining diphasic dialysis extraction and acylation was demonstrated and showed potential for other applications.

Acylation↗
PubMed2002

The effect of culture preservation techniques on patulin and citrinin production by Penicillium expansum Link.

AIMS: To study the influence of culture preservation methods and culture conditions on the production of the mycotoxins patulin and citrinin by Penicillium expansum. METHODS AND RESULTS: Ten strains of Penicillium expansum were preserved using subculture and maintenance at 4 degrees C, mineral oil, drying on silica gel and freeze-drying. Patulin and citrinin production was assessed on yeast extract sucrose agar (YES) and grape juice agar (GJ), using TLC before and after 0.5, 2-3, 6 and 12 months preservation. Citrinin was detected in all cultures for all preservation techniques on YES. The patulin profiles obtained differed with strain and culture media used. CONCLUSIONS: Citrinin production seems to be a stable character for the tested strains. There is a tendency for patulin detection with time apparently more consistent for silica gel storage and freeze-drying, especially when the strains are grown on GJ. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Variability in the profiles of the mycotoxins tested seems to be more strain-specific than dependent on the preservation technique used.

Bacteriological Techniques↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Production of patulin by different strains of Penicillium expansum in pear and apple cultivars stored at different temperatures and modified atmospheres.

It was shown that the ability of three different strains of Penicillium expansum (NRRL 2034, NRRL 6069, and CBS 481.84) to grow and to produce patulin in pears (cv. Spadona) and apples (cv. Starking) varied under the different temperatures tested (0, 3, 6, 17 and 25 degrees C). Strain NRRL 2034 did not produce patulin at 0 or 25 degrees C while the two other strains produced the toxin at all temperatures, the maximum production occurring at 25 degrees C (for pears) and 17 degrees C (for apples). No significant differences in pathogenicity, as determined by lesion diameter, was recorded among the strains. Patulin production was totally inhibited when the fungi were grown in apples stored under 3% CO2/2% O2 (25 degrees C). The weight of infected tissue in apples contaminated with any of the strains and stored at that modified atmosphere was 70% that of the control. Under 3% CO2/10% O2 or 3% CO2/20% O2, strain NRRL 2034 did not produce patulin while the two other strains produced the toxin in different amounts.

Carbon Dioxide↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Procedures for destruction of patulin in laboratory wastes.

Patulin is immunosuppressive and there is limited evidence of its carcinogenicity in experimental animals. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) initiated a programme for the development of degradation techniques for the commonly investigated mycotoxins. As a part of this programme, the following techniques were tested for the degradation of patulin: treatment with ammonia, treatment with ascorbic acid, and treatment with potassium permanganate in acidic or in alkaline conditions. Patulin analysis was performed by using HPLC with UV detection. Mutagenic activity of degradation residues was tested by in Salmonella typhimurium strains TA 97a, TA 98, TA 100, and TA 102. Complete disappearance of patulin was not achieved after 92 h of treatment with ascorbic acid. All the other methods tested led to complete removal of the molecule. However, the technique using potassium permanganate in acidic conditions produced residues which were mutagenic without activation to Salmonella typhimurium strains TA 100 and TA 102, which was attributed later to Mn2+. The two other techniques gave satisfactory results and were selected for further validation studies.

Ammonia↗
PubMed1999

Incidence of patulin in fruits and fruit juices marketed in Campinas, Brazil.

One hundred and eleven samples of processed fruit juices (apple, grape, pineapple, papaya, guava, banana and mango) and 38 samples of sound fruits (apple, papaya, mango, pear and peach) produced and marketed in Brazil, were analysed for patulin by HPLC. Only one out of 30 samples of apple juice was found positive at 17 micrograms/l. Patulin was not detected in the other foodstuffs. It was found in 14 samples of spoiled fruit samples of apple (150-267 micrograms/kg), pear (134-245 micrograms/kg) and peach (92-174 micrograms/kg). Confirmation of the identity of patulin was based on the UV spectrum obtained by the HPLC diode array detector, compared with that of standard patulin, TLC developed by several solvent systems and sprayed with 3-methyl-2-benzothiazolinone hydrazone, and by acetylation with acetic anhydride.

Beverages↗
PubMed2004

Commentary: the 1944 patulin trial: the first properly controlled multicentre trial conducted under the aegis of the British Medical Research Council.

The 1948 report of the British Medical Research Council's randomized trial of streptomycin for pulmonary tuberculosis is widely regarded as marking the beginning of the modern history of controlled clinical trials. Four years earlier, however, a methodologically sophisticated multicentre trial conducted under the aegis of the Medical Research Council was reported, which assessed the effects of the antibiotic patulin on the course of common colds. Philip D'Arcy Hart and Joan Faulkner (later Joan Doll) were the secretary and assistant secretary, respectively, to the committee overseeing the trial, and they clearly recognized the importance of preventing foreknowledge of allocations from those admitting patients to the study. To do this and to 'muddle people up', they and Ruth D'Arcy Hart devised a scheme involving the use of two patulin groups and two placebo groups, allocating patients to one of these four groups using strict rotation. Philip D'Arcy Hart believes that this study has been overshadowed by the celebrated streptomycin trial (for which he was also secretary to the oversight committee) because no beneficial effect of patulin was detected, and because the report of the streptomycin trial referred to the use of random sampling numbers to generate the allocation schedule. This article makes clear why we agree with Philip D'Arcy Hart that the 1944 patulin trial deserves wider recognition as the first well controlled, multicentre clinical trial to have been conducted under the aegis of the British Medical Research Council. This status is reflected in the International Journal of Epidemiology's reproduction of the full text of the trial report in this issue of the journal.

Common Cold↗
PubMed2006

Cloning and molecular characterization of Penicillium expansum genes upregulated under conditions permissive for patulin biosynthesis.

Penicillium expansum is commonly associated with patulin production in pomaceous fruits. Both the full-length isoepoxydon dehydrogenase (idh) gene and a 470 bp fragment of the 6-methylsalicylic acid synthase (6-msas) gene have been cloned from P. expansum. In addition, we cloned a 715 bp fragment of a putative ATP-binding cassette transporter gene peab1, together with part of two putative cytochrome P450 monooxygenase genes P-450 1 and P-450 2. Increased expression of all five genes was observed under patulin-permissive conditions, indicating not only their likely involvement in patulin biosynthesis but indicating for the first time that regulation of patulin biosynthesis in P. expansum is mediated at the level of gene transcription.

Acyltransferases↗
PubMed2006

Biotransformation of patulin by Gluconobacter oxydans.

A bacterium isolated from patulin-contaminated apples was capable of degrading patulin to a less-toxic compound, ascladiol. The bacterium was identified as Gluconobacter oxydans by 16S rRNA gene sequencing, whereas ascladiol was identified by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and proton and carbon nuclear magnetic resonance. Degradation of up to 96% of patulin was observed in apple juices containing up to 800 microg/ml of patulin and incubated with G. oxydans.

Beverages↗
PubMed1977

Patulin production by Byssochlamys spp. in fruit juices.

Ten strains of Byssochlamys fulva and three strains of B. nivea were cultured in a laboratory medium and tested for their ability to produce patulin. Two strains of B. fulva and all three strains of B. nivea produced the mycotoxin. One strain of B. fulva produced patulin in 11 of 13 processed fruit juices, with greatest amounts being produced in blueberry, red raspberry, and boysenberry juices, whereas no patulin was detected in prune or tomato juices. Grown in Concord grape juice at 18, 25, 30, and 38 degrees C, this strain produced the highest patulin concentration at 18 degrees C after 25 days, whereas biomass production was greatest at 25 and 30 degrees C after 20 and 25 days.

Ascomycota↗
PubMed1978

Disappearance of patulin during alcoholic fermentation of apple juice.

Eight yeast strains were used in three typical American processes to ferment apple juice containing 15 mg of added patulin per liter. Patulin was reduced to less than the minimum detectable level of 50 microgram/liter in all but two cases; in all cases, the level of patulin was reduced by over 99% during alcoholic fermentation. In unfermented samples of apple juice, the concentration of added patulin declined by only 10% when the juice was held for 2 weeks, a period equivalent to the time required for fermentation.

Biodegradation, Environmental↗
PubMed1986

DNA-damaging activity of patulin in Escherichia coli.

At a concentration of 10 micrograms/ml, patulin caused single-strand DNA breaks in living cells of Escherichia coli. At 50 micrograms/ml, double-strand breaks were observed also. Single-strand breaks were repaired in the presence of 10 micrograms of patulin per ml within 90 min when the cells were incubated at 37 degrees C in M9-salts solution without a carbon source. The same concentration also induced temperature-sensitive lambda prophage and a prophage of Bacillus megaterium. When an in vitro system with permeabilized Escherichia coli cells was used, patulin at 10 micrograms/ml induced DNA repair synthesis and inhibited DNA replication. The in vivo occurrence of DNA strand breaks and DNA repair correlated with the in vitro induction of repair synthesis. In vitro the RNA synthesis was less affected, and overall protein synthesis was not inhibited at 10 micrograms/ml. Only at higher concentrations (250 to 500 micrograms/ml) was inhibition of in vitro protein synthesis observed. Thus, patulin must be regarded as a mycotoxin with selective DNA-damaging activity.

Bacteriophage lambda↗
PubMed1982

Effect of carbohydrates on the antibacterial activity of patulin on Streptococcus bovis.

The antibiotic activity of patulin on Streptococcus bovis varied in the presence of different sugars in the incubation medium. The 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) of patulin was 4.5 times greater in the medium containing glucose than in the lactose-containing medium (100.5 versus 22 micrograms/mL). The addition of two sugars (glucose plus lactose) to the medium was followed by the utilization of glucose only when patulin was present; lack of growth on lactose was not due to beta-galactosidase inactivation by patulin.

Carbohydrates↗
PubMed1999

Analysis of underivatizated patulin by a GC-MS technique.

An alternative approach based on the use of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is used to confirm the presence of patulin in apple juice. In the gas chromatography (GC) methods previously described, derivatization of patulin was always necessary in order to achieve good chromatographic detection. The use of electronic pressure control (EPC) and on-column injection avoids the need for patulin derivatization and allows a sensitive analysis of patulin. A detection limit of 4 microg/liter in apple juice can be attributed to the method.

Beverages↗
PubMed1987

Strand scissions of DNA by patulin in the presence of reducing agents and cupric ions.

In the presence of NADPH and CuCl2, patulin induced the cleavage of ColE1 DNA and lambda phage DNA in vitro. The DNA-cleaving activity of patulin was concentration dependent. At the lowest concentration of patulin, ColE1 supercoiled DNA was relaxed and the highest concentration induced linearization of the DNA. This activity was inhibited by superoxide dismutase, catalase and radical scavengers, showing involvement of free radicals in the DNA-cleavage. lambda Phage DNA was also degraded by patulin under the same conditions.

Bacteriocin Plasmids↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Solid-phase extraction method for patulin in apple juice and unfiltered apple juice.

Patulin, a mold metabolite, is commonly found in rotting apples. Some countries regulate patulin at levels ranging from 30 to 50 micrograms/L. Most analytical methods for patulin in apple juice include liquid-liquid partitions. A solid-phase extraction method has been developed for apple juice and unfiltered apple juice in the United States. A portion of the test sample (5 mL) was passed through a macroporous copolymer cartridge and was washed with 1 mL 1% sodium bicarbonate and then with 1 mL 1% acetic acid. Patulin was eluted with 3 mL 2% acetonitrile in anhydrous ethyl ether and was determined by reversed-phase liquid chromatography with UV detection at 276 nm. Recoveries ranged from 93 to 104% in test samples spiked at 20-100 micrograms/L.

Chromatography, Liquid↗
PubMed1975

[Toxinogenic moulds of silage. III. -- Patulin and byssochlamic acid production by Byssochlamys nivea Westling on a laboratory silage model (author's transl)].

Growth of Byssochlamys nivea in anaerobiosis and in pure culture on sterilized standing forage, or in ecological conditions very similar to ensilaging, is accompanied by the production of patulin and byssochlamic acid. In pure culture and in anaerobiosis (Trial E.ana), Byssochlamys nivea produces 42.5 p.p.m. of patulin on day 40 of storage and 34.25 p.p.m. of byssochlamic acid on day 82. In competition with other moulds (Trial E.ster.) or in presence of the complex microflora of silages (Trial E.f.), Byssochlamys nivea toxin production is irregular and less than found in Trial E.ana. A maximum of patulin is obtained on day 45 and day 82 of culture, respectively. Irregularity of the curves may express random competition between various micro-organisms or fixation of patulin on sulfhydryl radicals. Production kinetics of the two mycotoxins indicate that silage pollution risks will be high after three months of storage.

Animal Feed↗