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PubMed2001

Effects of field exposure to diazinon on small mammals inhabiting a semienclosed prairie grassland ecosystem. I. Ecological and reproductive effects.

The widespread use of cholinesterase-inhibiting pesticides in the environment presents increasing concerns about their effects on human, wildlife, and ecosystem health. As a group, these pesticides are generally highly toxic and have great potential for negatively affecting nontarget organisms. Small mammals have proven to be ideal biomonitors of environmental contaminants, and were used here to test for possible effects of a widely used cholinesterase-inhibiting insecticide, diazinon, in a natural field setting. Using 12 0.1-ha terrestrial mesocosms, we examined the effects of low-level diazinon exposure on the small mammal communities inhabiting semienclosed grassland ecosystems. Our primary objective was to test the hypothesis that diazinon, applied at two different recommended label application rates, would not cause any observable adverse ecological or reproductive effects on small mammal populations and communities. Experimental small mammal communities consisting of Sigmodon hispidus, Microtus ochrogaster, Reithrodontomys fulvescens, and Mus musculus were stocked at natural densities and sex ratios inside empty mesocosms. Diazinon 4E was applied at two different maximum recommended label application rates, 0.56 kg a.i./ha (1x) and 4.5 kg a.i./ha (8x), and controls remained unsprayed, with four enclosures (replicates) per treatment. Two 30-d trials were run during peak rodent breeding seasons and enclosures were sampled on days 2, 16, and 30 of each trial. Recovery of small mammals was not significantly different among treatments, although fewer animals were recovered from the diazinon-exposed enclosures in both trials. Analysis of trapping data suggested that the normally strong competitive relationship between Sigmodon and Microtus may be altered by the pesticide, favoring Microtus in the diazinon-exposed enclosures. Incidence of reproductive condition was found to be reduced 20 to 80% and 33 to 100% in diazinon-exposed males and females, respectively. Reproductive productivity, including percentage of pregnant females and of females giving birth, was significantly reduced in diazinon-exposed animals. Percentage of pregnant females ranged from 13.6 to 43.5% in diazinon-exposed animals compared to 40 to 80% for control animals, and percentage of females giving birth ranged from 0 to 17% in diazinon-exposed animals compared to 22 to 50% for control animals. Generally, the effects found in this study suggest that diazinon was relatively persistent in the sprayed enclosures and that oral routes of exposure (consumption of dead and dying arthropods, grooming) may have been important. Ecological relationships and reproduction in both herbivorous and omnivorous mammals were negatively impacted by diazinon exposure. Overall, ecological relationships in the enclosed prairie grassland ecosystem were disrupted by diazinon, probably through a combination of sublethal effects, particularly reproductive effects, impacting individuals and their populations. This suggests that negative impacts on populations and community structure and function may persist longer than diazinon persists in the environment.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Immunoglobulin G antibodies to Borrelia burgdorferi in game animals and small mammals in eastern Slovakia.

In a survey of game animals and small mammals, the sera of 185 animals were examined for the presence of immunoglobulin G antibodies to the spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, which causes Lyme borreliosis. These animals comprised 59 fallow deer (Dama dama), 56 mouflons (Ovis musimon) and 70 small mammals of six different species. The sera of the fallow deer and the mouflons were examined by indirect haemagglutination assay. The sera of the small mammals were examined by modified enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, which is available in a commercial kit. The sera of the 59 fallow deer demonstrated positivity of 40.77% (titres 1:40-1:80). The 56 mouflons demonstrated seropositivity of 17.8% (1:40-1:80). The sera of the small mammals were highly positive in the yellow-necked field mouse (Apodemus flavicollis) at 42.1% (titres 1:200-1:1,600), followed by the bank vole (Clethrionomys glareolus) at 14.3% (1:400-1:800), the common vole (Microtus arvalis) at 12.5% (1:200) and the black-striped field mouse (A. agrarius) at 10.0% (1:200-1:400-800). The authors also report the rate of infestation of these small mammals by the tick Ixodes ricinus, as these mammal species are potential reservoirs for this vector. The study focuses on the relationship between the possibility of infestation by I. ricinus and the reservoir competence of the different species under study, as well as the possible spread of disease. The detected rate of seroprevalence indicates that all the investigated animals have had contact with infected ticks.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Sponge halogenated natural products found at parts-per-million levels in marine mammals.

Several unknown, abundant brominated compounds (BCs) were recently detected in the blubber of dolphins and other marine mammals from Queensland (northeast Australia). The BCs were interpreted as potential natural products due to the lack of anthropogenic sources for these compounds. This study investigated whether some of the BCs accumulated by diverse marine mammal species are identical with natural BCs previously isolated from sponges (Dysidea sp.) living in the same habitat. Isolates from sponges and mollusks (Asteronotus cespitosus) were compared with the signals detected in the mammals' tissue. Mass spectra and gas chromatography retention times on four different capillary columns of the isolates from sponges and mammals were identical in all respects. This proves that the chemical name of the compound previously labeled BC-2 is 4,6-dibromo-2-(2',4'-dibromo)phenoxyanisole and that the chemical name of BC-11 is 3,5-dibromo-2-(3',5'-dibromo,2'-methoxy)phenoxyanisole. Using a quantitative reference solution of BC-2, we established that the concentrations of the brominated metabolites found in the marine mammals are frequently >1 mg/kg. The highest concentration (3.8 mg/kg), found in a sample of pygmy sperm whale (Kogia breviceps), indicates that BC-2 is a bioaccumulative, natural organohalogen compound. This is supported by the concentrations of the BCs in our samples being equal to the highest concentrations of anthropogenic BCs in any environmental sample. The quantitative determination of BC-2 in blubber of marine mammals from Africa and the Antarctic suggests that BC-2 is widespread. These results are direct proof that marine biota can produce persistent organic chemicals that accumulate to substantial concentrations in higher trophic organisms.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed2004

Animal experiments using mammals are essential to the study on the mechanisms of phenomena produced in the human body in the space environment.

The animal experiments have contributed to the physiology and medicine concerned with the care and cure of patients as well as with an understanding of mechanisms of various diseases and human health. In particular, the numerous mammals have been used for the medical researches. Similarly, to investigate the phenomena in the human body that occur in the space environment, the various mammals have been used for the medical researches in space. Since the human with frontier spirits will never stop continuing the space development and utilization, the space medical and physiological researches using mammals as well as subjects are more important and necessary for the future space activities. The mammal modules in spacecrafts and space station are produced for the rodents at this time. Therefore, from various viewpoints, the rats and mice are the first choice for space mammal experiments of medical or life science researches and space modules for the mammal should be carefully and extensively designed.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

The impact of parasites on marine mammals: a review.

The design and implementation of conservation plans for marine mammals is a matter of public concern. However, very little is known about the role of parasites in the dynamics of marine mammal populations. This is probably due to methodological constraints concerning sampling biases, poor knowledge of the biology of the hosts and parasites and difficulty and costy of experimental studies. However, current evidence supports the theory that parasites may regulate marine mammal populations. Crassicauda species in cetaceans and Uncinaria lucasi in pinnipeds seem good candidates as regulating agents. In addition, parasite-induced mass mortalities may be important in marine mammal populations. Well documented cases are the PDV virus which decimated the European common seal (Phoca vitulina) populations in 1988 and the Mediterranean striped dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba) morbillivirus infection of 1990-1992. Due to the social organisation patterns of marine mammals it is possible that such die-offs occur at very low densities, representing a potential threat to endangered species like the Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus), the Hawaiian monk seal (M. schauinslandi) or the Finish Saimaa seal (Phoca hispida saimensis). It is concluded that parasites can play an important role in marine mammal populations not only at the ecological scale but at the evolutionary one too.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Scaling of the limb long bones to body mass in terrestrial mammals.

Long-bone scaling has been analyzed in a large number of terrestrial mammals for which body masses were known. Earlier proposals that geometric or elastic similarity are suitable as explanations for long-bone scaling across a large size range are not supported. Differential scaling is present, and large mammals on average scale with lower regression slopes than small mammals. Large mammals tend to reduce bending stress during locomotion by having shorter limb bones than predicted rather than by having very thick diaphyses, as is usually assumed. The choice of regression model used to describe data samples in analyses of scaling becomes increasingly important as correlation coefficients decrease, and theoretical models supported by one analysis may not be supported when applying another statistical model to the same data. Differences in limb posture and locomotor performance have profound influence on the amount of stress set up in the appendicular bones during rigorous physical activity and make it unlikely that scaling of long bones across a large size range of terrestrial mammals can be satisfactorily explained by any one power function.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

On the relationship between orbit orientation and binocular visual field overlap in mammals.

The orbital apertures of Primates are among the most convergent (i.e., facing in the same direction) among mammals. It is often assumed that orbit convergence is associated with binocular visual field overlap and stereoscopic depth perception in primates. Likewise, it is also assumed that orbit orientation reflects the shape of the visual field across mammals. To date, however, no study has demonstrated that orbit and visual field orientation are correlated, much less comparable, across mammals. In this study, data on orbit convergence were collected for a representative sample of mammals for which data on the extent of the visual field are available. Both standard and phylogenetically controlled comparisons were made. The results demonstrate that orbit convergence and binocular visual field overlap are significantly correlated and display a linear relationship. Based on orbit convergence, Primates as a group have the largest binocular visual fields among mammals.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed1983

Neocortical projections of the suprageniculate and posterior thalamic nuclei in the marsupial brush-tailed possum, Trichosurus vulpecula (Phalangeridae), with a comparative commentary on the organization of the posterior thalamus in marsupial and placental mammals.

Axonal transport methods were used to determine the extent and organisation of neocortical projections from the suprageniculate (SG) and posterior (PO) thalamic nuclei in the brush-tailed possum. Our findings show that SG projects extensively to the auditory cortex, overlapping the cortical projection field of the medial geniculate nucleus, and to the immediately neighbouring association cortex. Though the input relationships of SG appear similar to those reported for other mammals, placental and marsupial, a strong SG projection to auditory cortex has not been reported previously. Neocortical relationships of PO are characterised by an orderly point-to-point projection to all but the most rostral parts of the motor-somaesthetic cortex. There is also a substantial projection to the entire posterior parietal association cortex. The PO-neocortex projection is reciprocally organised. The PO-neocortical projection in the possum is similar to that reported in the Virginia opossum, rat, and several other mammals. There is a major difference in organisation in comparison with certain monkeys where the PO projection is much more restricted and does not involve the motor and somaesthetic cortex. We conclude that PO is similarly organised in many, though not all, mammals, including the marsupials, rodents, insectivores, and prosimian primates. The possum SG, on the other hand, is clearly distinct from other mammals in its extensive projection to auditory cortex, though we cannot say at present whether this a general property of marsupial mammals or a peculiarity restricted to this species and possibly its close relatives.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

Scaling of cursoriality in mammals.

Data on limb bone lengths from 64 mammalian species were combined with data on 114 bovid species (Scott, '79) to assess the scaling of limb lengths and proportions in mammals ranging from 0.002 to 364 kg. We analyzed log-transformed data using both reduced major axis and least-squares regression to focus on the distribution across mammals of two key traits-limb length and metatarsal/femur ratio--associated with cursorial adaptation. The total lengths of both fore and hindlimbs scale in a manner very close to the M0.33 predicted by geometric similarity. Thus the relative limb lengths of large mammals, including bovids, generally regarded among the most cursorial of mammals, are very similar to those of the rodents and insectivores in this sample. Metatarsal/femur ratio also shows little change with changing mass, although bovids tend to have relatively longer metapodials than do other families in the sample. We argue that many of the remaining morphological traits associated with cursoriality (e.g., reduction in joint mobility and number of distal limb bone elements) promote cursoriality only at large body sizes. These results lead us to question the general perception that cursoriality is most widespread among large mammals. We also suggest that discussions of cursoriality should focus explicitly on the two partially independent aspects of performance that are otherwise confounded under this general term--speed and the ability to cover substantial distance.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Mass allometry of the appendicular skeleton in terrestrial mammals.

Most analyses on allometry of long bones in terrestrial mammals have focused on dimensional allometry, relating external bone measurements either to each other or to body mass. In this article, an analysis of long bone mass to body mass in 64 different species of mammals, spanning three orders of magnitude in body mass, is presented. As previously reported from analyses on total skeletal mass to body mass in terrestrial vertebrates, the masses of most appendicular bones scale with significant positive allometry. These include the pectoral and pelvic girdles, humerus, radius+ulna, and forelimb. Total hindlimb mass and the masses of individual hindlimb bones (femur, tibia, and metatarsus) scale isometrically. Metapodial mass correlates more poorly with body mass than the girdles or any of the long bones. Metapodial mass probably reflects locomotor behavior to a greater extent than do the long bones. Long bone mass in small mammals (<50 kg) scales with significantly greater positive allometry than bone mass in large (>50 kg) mammals, probably because of the proportionally shorter long bones of large mammals as a means of preserving resistance to bending forces at large body sizes. The positive allometric scaling of the skeleton in terrestrial animals has implications for the maximal size attainable, and it is possible that the largest sauropod dinosaurs approached this limit.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

Optimality analysis of vascular-tissue system in mammals for oxygen transport.

The efficiency of the vascular-tissue system in mammals for oxygen (O2) transport to tissue was evaluated by employing the following simulation models; (i) the spherical tissue model for assessing the maximum tissue mass for which a certain number of capillaries located in the center of each sphere can deliver sufficient O2; (ii) the minimum volume model of the multi-terminal vascular system for estimating the energy cost of blood flow supply to that number of capillaries; and (iii), the efficiency evaluation of the whole system by the ratio (the maximum O2 uptake)/(the energy cost). The computer simulation was carried out by inputting the physiological estimates of tissue O2 consumption rate and cardiac output of mammals in the resting and exercising states, which were calculated from the statistically determined power functions of body weight (the allometric relationship) in the range of 10 g to 500 kg. The results obtained from the data during exercise revealed that the optimum capillary number attaining the maximum efficiency alters nearly in proportion to the body weight and that the total tissue mass corresponding to the optimum capillary number agrees well with the actual tissue mass for virtually all the mammals, while their maximum efficiency remains constant. From these results, it is concluded that any mammal is provided with an equally efficient mass transport system, which is optimized for O2 transport to tissue under the highest metabolic activity, regardless of body weight variation. This may suggest one of the reasons why so many species of mammals with greatly different sizes can exist on the earth.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Relationship between number of muscles, behavioral repertoire size, and encephalization in mammals.

Behavior for mammals is built out of multiple muscles acting in a coordinated fashion. Prima facie, there are three principal ways to increase an animal's behavioral repertoire size. The first is to, for each new behavior type, create a set of new muscle types (e.g. triceps, sartorius, etc.) with new functions specifically devoted to the implementation of that behavior type. If this were the case, then although each behavior is built out of many muscles, behavior is not built in a combinatorial fashion out of muscles. The second is similar to the first in that new behavior types are implemented via new muscle types, but, instead, muscles are used in a combinatorial fashion, so that it is the combination of the new muscle type with existing muscle types that makes the new behavior type possible. This is analogous to the addition of new words in a language. The third way behavioral complexity may be scaled up is to increase the complexity of behavioral expressions themselves (rather than increasing the number of muscles types), namely by having more muscles involved in an average behavior. This is analogous to uttering longer sentences in a language. My main task in this paper is to examine which of these ways underlies the increase of behavioral complexity among mammals. Behavioral repertoire sizes from the ethology literature were accumulated for mammals from two dozen species across eight orders, and the number of muscle types was estimated from atlases of anatomy across eight mammalian orders. The manner in which behavioral complexity actually increases among mammals appears to favor the second possibility mentioned above: greater behavioral complexity is achieved primarily by increasing the number of muscle types, and by using muscles in a combinatorial fashion. The theoretical framework I describe allows us to interpret the manner in which the number of muscle types scales with behavioral repertoire size, and I conclude that the number of degrees of freedom in the construction of behavioral expressions is on the order of three, which is probably due to neurobiological limitations in forming behaviors. The ontogeny of behavior in rat is also discussed within this framework. Finally, I show that there is a strong positive relationship between behavioral repertoire size and encephalization among mammals.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Small mammals as monitors of environmental contaminants.

The merit of using small mammals as monitors of environmental contaminants was assessed using data from the published literature. Information was located on 35 species of small mammals from 7 families used to monitor heavy metals, radionuclides, and organic chemicals at mine sites, industrial areas, hazardous and radioactive waste disposal sites, and agricultural and forested land. To document foodchain transfer of chemicals, concentrations in soil, vegetation, and invertebrates, where available, were included. The most commonly trapped North American species were Peromyscus leucopus, Blarina brevicauda, and Microtus pennsylvanicus. In these species, exposure to chemicals was determined from tissue residue analyses, biochemical assays, and cytogenetic assays. Where enough information was available, suitable target tissues, or biological assays for specific chemicals were noted. In general, there was a relationship between concentrations of contaminants in the soil or food, and concentrations in target tissues of several species. This relationship was most obvious for the nonessential heavy metals, cadmium, lead, and mercury and for fluoride. Kidney was the single best tissue for residue analyses of inorganic contaminants. However, bone should be the tissue of choice for both lead and fluorine. Exposure to lead was also successfully documented using biochemical and histopathological endpoints. Bone was the tissue of choice for exposure to 90Sr, whereas muscle was an appropriate tissue for 137Cs. For organic contaminants, exposure endpoints depended on the chemical(s) of concern. Liver and whole-body residue analyses, as well as enzyme changes, organ histology, genotoxicity, and, in one case, population dynamics, were successfully used to document exposure to these contaminants. Based on information in these studies, each species' suitability as a monitor for a specific contaminant or type of contaminant was evaluated and subsequently ranked. A relationship between contaminant exposure and trophic level emerged. Insectivores (shrews) had the highest levels of contaminants, followed by omnivores (cricetid mice) with intermediate levels, and herbivores (voles) with the lowest levels. A substantial number of these biomonitoring studies using small mammals collectively point to the importance of food habits and habitat of small mammals, and their availability and abundance as factors that should influence species selection for monitoring studies. The type of contaminants under consideration as well as the appropriateness of the endpoints selected are important factors to consider when deciding whether or not to include small mammals in biomonitoring studies.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Organochlorine and heavy-metal contaminants in wild mammals and birds of Urbino-Pesaro Province, Italy: an analytic overview for potential bioindicators.

Tissue samples from 56 bird and 11 mammal species of different trophic levels, collected from 1994 to 1995 from the Urbino-Pesaro area in the Marche region of central Italy, were analyzed for the presence of organochlorine compounds (polychlorinated biphenyls and p,p'-DDE) and heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Cr, and Hg). Results revealed interspecies differences in pollutant residue concentrations. A clear relationship between contaminant and trophic levels emerged depending on several factors specific to the chemicals and the organisms, the importance of dietary accumulation, and metabolic capacity as it increased toward higher trophic levels. Polychlorinated biphenyls and p,p'-DDE were found in all of the bird and mammal species analyzed (bird- or fish-eating birds), and insectivore mammals showed the highest level of these contaminants. Pb and Hg residues were also widely detected and reflected trophic-level differences. The highest concentration of Pb was found in herbivorous or bird-eating aquatic invertebrates and in insectivorous mammals, particularly in the hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus), whereas the highest Hg levels were found in fish-eating birds. All of the other heavy metals were detected at low concentrations and represented background levels for birds and mammals, with the exception of increased amounts of Cd and Cr, respectively, found in stone marten (Martes foina) and fox (Vulpes vulpes). Data from this study provided information on baseline levels of interest to monitor status and trends in chemical residue in biota in this specific area, and therefore they represent a tool to evaluate potential ecologic, wildlife, and human health exposure.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1994

Environmental contamination and marine mammals in coastal waters from Argentina: an overview.

Environmental contamination become an increasing global problem. Different scientific strategies have been developed in order to assess the impact of pollutants on marine ecosystems. The distribution of toxic contaminants in tissues of different marine mammal species--both cetaceans and pinnipeds--has been studied in many ecosystems, as well as several related ecological processes, like pollutant accumulation or transfer through the food web. A research program directed towards evaluating the occurrence of pollutants in marine mammals from the coastal waters of Argentina (southwestern Atlantic Ocean) has been developed since 1985, and includes the study of heavy metal contents in stranded or incidentally caught animals. The marine mammal species studied during this period were: the seals Otaria flavescens and Arctocephalus australis, and small cetaceans Tursiops gephyreus, Pontoporia blainvillei, Kogia breviceps and Ziphius cavirostris. In most of the cases, high contents of heavy metals (total mercury, cadmium, zinc, and copper) have been recorded. Moreover, liver showed the maximum capability for accumulation of heavy metals in all studied species. The biological and ecological characteristics of each species of the above-mentioned marine mammals (feeding habits, age, migratory pathways, or sex) contributed to the understanding of the metal sources. Considering the results as obtained during the study period it can be assumed that: (1) The global distribution of toxic contaminants also affects the southwestern Atlantic Ocean ecosystems, and (2) Marine mammals could be appropriate bioindicator species in order to assess this kind of environmental problem.

Animals↗
PubMed1983

A comparative study of the metabolic capacity of hearts from reptiles and mammals.

The metabolic capacities of reptilian and mammalian hearts have been investigated using two methods: measurement of mitochondrial enzyme activity (cytochrome oxidase) and measurement of both mitochondrial volume density and membrane surface area. The heart tissues from the reptiles and mammals showed 2-fold "weight specific" and 3-fold total organ metabolic capacity differences. Heart mitochondria from reptiles and mammals showed 2-fold differences in the activity of their enzymes per mg of mitochondrial protein yet showed very similar mitochondrial surface areas per cm3 of mitochondria. Heart mitochondria differ from liver mitochondria which have the same enzyme activities per mg of protein and the same mitochondrial surface area per cm3 of mitochondria in both the reptiles and mammals. A wide variety of reptiles and mammals both showed relationships between total heart metabolic capacity and body weight. Mammals have larger hearts than similar sized reptiles and their hearts have a greater proportion of cellular volume occupied by mitochondria.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Lifetime energy budgets in mammals and birds.

1. Two data sets for standard energy metabolism (351 and 320 species, respectively) and one for maximal lifespan (494 species) in mammals have been assembled from the literature. 2. In addition smaller data sets of active (field) energy metabolism in mammals (36 species) and in birds (25 species) have been drawn on. 3. The products of the respective regression parameters as well as the products of energy metabolism and maximal lifespan in individual species have been computed in order to estimate lifetime energy metabolism in mammals generally and in various mammalian orders. 4. It is found that lifetime energy budgets in mammals generally, whether standard or active, very systematically with body mass with slopes between 0.87 and 0.93, significantly different from unity (P less than 0.001 or P less than 0.01). 5. In birds, lifetime energy budgets, whether standard or active, vary with slopes of 0.94 +/- 0.05 and 0.88 +/- 0.09, which are not significantly different from unity (P greater than 0.1). 6. In carnivores, artiodactyls, primates and bats the slopes for lifetime standard as well as lifetime active energy budgets are not significantly different from one in any of the investigated data sets. 7. In rodents the lifetime standard energy budgets have slope significantly different from one; in marsupials one data set for lifetime standard and the one for lifetime active energy budget lead to slopes significantly different from one. 8. It is concluded from this analysis that current data do not support the hypothesis that lifetime energy budgets, whether standard or active, vary as the first power of body mass in mammals generally.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Defining the limits of diving biochemistry in marine mammals.

The field of marine mammal diving biochemistry was essentially untouched when Peter Hochachka turned his attention to it in the mid-1970s. Over the next 30 years, his work followed three main themes in this area: first, most biologists at that time supported the theory that diving mammals utilized enhanced metabolic pathways for hypoxic energy production (glycolysis to lactate) and reduced their metabolic rate while diving. Peter began his work on potential hypoxic adaptations in marine mammals by working out the details of how these pathways would be regulated. By the 1980s, he started to ask how diving mammals balanced the increased demands of exercise with the apparently conflicting demands to reduce aerobic metabolism while exercising underwater. By the 1990s, his work involved complex models of the interplay between the neural, hormonal, behavioral and evolutionary components of diving biochemistry and animal exercise. From a comparative approach, he excelled at bringing themes of hypoxic adaptation from many different types of animals to the field of diving mammal biochemistry. This review traces the history of Peter Hochachka's work on diving biochemistry from the perspective of those of us who spent time with him both inside the laboratory and outside in the field from Antarctica to Iceland.

Adaptation, Physiological↗