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PubMed2002

Intrusive effects of implicitly processed information on explicit memory.

This study described the interference of implicitly processed information on the memory for explicitly processed information. Participants studied a list of words either auditorily or visually under instructions to remember the words (explicit study). They were then visually presented another word list under instructions which facilitate implicit but not explicit processing. Following a distractor task, memory for the explicit study list was tested with either a visual or auditory recognition task that included new words, words from the explicit study list, and words implicitly processed. Analysis indicated participants both failed to recognize words from the explicit study list and falsely recognized words that were implicitly processed as originating from the explicit study list. However, this effect only occurred when the testing modality was visual, thereby matching the modality for the implicitly processed information, regardless of the modality of the explicit study list. This "modality effect" for explicit memory was interpreted as poor source memory for implicitly processed information and in light of the procedures used. as well as illustrating an example of "remembering causing forgetting."

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

A requirements index for information processing in hospitals.

OBJECTIVES: Reference models describing typical information processing requirements in hospitals do not currently exist. This leads to high hospital information system (HIS) management expenses, for example, during tender processes for the acquisition of software application programs. Our aim was, therefore, to develop a comprehensive, lasting, technology-independent, and sufficiently detailed index of requirements for information processing in hospitals in order to reduce respective expenses. METHODS: Two-dozen German experts established an index of requirements for information processing in university hospitals. This was done in a consensus-based, top-down, cyclic manner. Each functional requirement was derived from information processing functions and sub-functions of a hospital. RESULTS: The result is the first official German version of a requirements index, containing 233 functional requirements and 102 function-independent requirements, focusing on German needs. The functional requirements are structured according to the primary care process from admission to discharge and supplemented by requirements for handling patient records, work organization and resource planning, hospital management, research and education. Both the German version and its English translation are available in the Internet. CONCLUSIONS: The index of requirements contains general information processing requirements in hospitals which are formulated independent of information processing tools, or of HIS architectures. It aims at supporting HIS management, especially HIS strategic planning, HIS evaluation, and tender processes. The index can be regarded as a draft, which must, however, be refined according to the specific aims of a particular project. Although focused on German needs, we expect that it can also be useful in other countries. The high amount of interest shown for the index supports its usefulness.

Computer Systems↗
PubMed2003

Selective impairment in effortful information processing in major depression.

Automatic and effortful information processing in depressed patients was investigated by a visual search paradigm, in order to examine dysfunctional effortful processing in depressed patients. Twenty-one patients with major depression, according to the DSM-IV, and with a moderate depression measured by the Hamilton Rating Scale score at >18 participated in the study. The healthy control group was matched for age, gender, and level of education. Half of the trials involved only one type of distractor, and the other half of the trials involved two types of distractors being presented. The results show that the performance of the depressed patients was equal to the control group when the target was easily recognized with only one type of distractor present. However, when target detection required a more difficult and complex attentive search strategy, effortful information processing, the depressed patients needed longer visual search time compared to the controls. Depressed patients seem to have impaired performance on effortful but not automatic information processing.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Animal models for information processing during sleep.

Information provided by external stimuli does reach the brain during sleep, although the amount of information is reduced during sleep compared to wakefulness. The process controlling this reduction is called 'sensory' gating and evidence exists that the underlying neurophysiological processes take place in the thalamus. Furthermore, it is clear that stimuli given during sleep can alter the functional state of the brain. Two factors have been shown to play a crucial role in causing changes in the sleeping brain: the intensity and the relevance of the stimulus. Intensive stimuli arouse the brain, as well as stimuli having a high informational impact on the sleeping person. The arousal threshold for important stimuli is quite low compared to neutral stimuli. A central question in sleep research is whether associative learning, or in other words the formation of new associations between stimuli, can take place in a sleeping brain. It has been shown that simple forms of learning are still possible during sleep. In sleeping rats, it is proven that habituation, an active, simple form of learning not to respond to irrelevant stimuli, can occur. Moreover, there is evidence for the view that more complex associations can be modulated and newly formed during sleep. This is shown by two experimental approaches: an extinction paradigm and a latent inhibition (pre-exposure) paradigm. The presentation of non-reinforced stimuli during sleep causes slower extinction compared to the same presentation of these stimuli during wakefulness. Consistently, the suppressive capacity of a stimulus in the latent inhibition paradigm is less when previously pre-exposed during sleep, as compared to pre-exposure during wakefulness. Thus, while associative learning is not completely blocked during sleep, aspects of association formation are clearly altered. However, animal studies also clearly indicate that complex forms of learning are not possible during sleep. It is hypothesised that this restriction in information processing during sleep is due to the considerable reduction of incoming information by the sleeping brain. This reduction may serve to protect the sleep process.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Information-processing deficits and thought disorder in schizophrenia.

OBJECTIVE: The goal of this investigation was to study the relationship between information-processing deficits and thought disorder in schizophrenic patients. METHOD: Fifty-two subjects diagnosed with schizophrenia were administered tests of information processing and thought disorder. The information-processing tests included visual backward masking and prepulse inhibition of the startle reflex. Thought disorder was measured with the Magical Ideation Scale, the Scale for the Assessment of Positive Symptoms, the alogia subscale of the Scale for the Assessment of Negative Symptoms, and the Ego Impairment Index-human experience variable and its subcomponents derived from the Rorschach. RESULTS: Elevated poor responses on the Ego Impairment Index-human experience variable were significantly correlated with information-processing deficits. In a simultaneous multiple regression, the auditory prepulse inhibition measure was the best predictor of poor responses on the Ego Impairment Index-human experience variable. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest a correlative relationship between information-processing deficits and thought disorder. The relationship is most apparent when highly sensitive measures of both information processing and thought disorder are used. Furthermore, the prediction of poor responses on the Ego Impairment Index-human experience variable by auditory prepulse inhibition is important, since the neural circuitry of prepulse inhibition is known and involves the modulatory influences of the cortical-striatal-pallidal-thalamic circuit. These findings lend support to the hypothesis that information-processing failures are associated with cognitive fragmentation and thought disorder. More speculatively, these results allow us to hypothesize that impairments in part of the cortical-striatal-pallidal-thalamic circuit may lead to thought disorder, as well as prepulse inhibition deficits.

Adult↗
PubMed1967

Visual and auditory information processing in children and adults.

Children of three ages were compared with adults in a recognition experiment requiring continuous processing of information. The growth in precision for visually presented words is steeper than for auditorially presented words, largely because the former are harder for the first graders and, to a lesser extent, for the third graders. In adults, visual processing of information is at least as good as auditory. The use of receiver operating characteristic curves in describing the data permit greater precision in estimating the capacity of the individual subjects and are particularly useful since the errors of failure to recognize were different from ordinary errors of false recognition, and they occurred in large numbers.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Neurophysiological factors in human information processing capacity.

What determines how well an individual can manage the complexity of information processing demands when several tasks have to be executed simultaneously? Various theoretical frameworks address the mechanisms of information processing and the changes that take place when processes become automated, and brain regions involved in various types of information processing have been identified, as well as sequences of events in the brain. The neurophysiological substrate of human information processing capacity, i.e. the amount that can be processed simultaneously, is, however, unresolved, as is the basis of inter-individual variability in capacity. Automatization of cognitive functions is known to increase capacity to process additional tasks, but behavioural indices of automatization are poor predictors of processing capacity in individuals. Automatization also leads to a decline of brain activity in the working memory system. In this study, we test the hypothesis that processing capacity is closely related to the way that the brain adjusts to practice of a single cognitive task, i.e. to the changes in neuronal activity that accompany automatization as measured with functional MRI (fMRI). Using a task that taxes the working memory system, and is sensitive to automatization, performance improved while activity in the network declined, as expected. The key finding is that the magnitude of automatization-induced reduction of activity in this system was a strong predictor for the ability to perform two different working memory tasks simultaneously (after scanning). It explained 60% of the variation in information processing capacity across individuals. In contrast, the behavioural measures of automatization did not predict this. We postulate that automatization involves at least two partially independent neurophysiological mechanisms, i.e. (i) streamlining of neuronal communication which improves performance on a single task; and (ii) functional trimming of neuronal ensembles which enhances the capacity to accommodate processing of additional tasks, potentially by facilitating rapid switching of instruction sets or contexts. Finally, this study shows that fMRI can provide information that predicts behavioural output, which is not provided by overt behavioural measures.

Adult↗
PubMed2007

Effect of stress on information processing in the dental implant surgery setting.

OBJECTIVES: Dental implantation is a stressful experience, both physically and psychologically. The effect of anxiety on the patient's ability to process relevant information prior to a stressful clinical situation (implant insertion) was evaluated. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study included 98 healthy patients, scheduled for implant insertion. Two different audio-tapes with relevant information regarding implant insertion were listened to immediately pre-operatively. Recognition questionnaires, consisting of 21 statements (correct and false information) were prepared, one for each tape. The dental anxiety scale (DAS), degree of state anxiety (SA), evaluation of pain expected during surgery, and extent to which patients understood the information provided were examined on 100 mm visual analogue scales. RESULTS: A significant positive correlation was found between patients' DAS and SA and between patients' expectation to experience pain during the surgical procedure. Certainty of understanding (CU) significantly contributed to the explanation of correctly classified statements (beta=-0.43, t=3.71, P<0.01). CU was positively related to SA and negatively to DAS. CONCLUSIONS: In a stressful pre-surgical situation, the ability to process relevant information may be severely impaired and should not be given to patients immediately before planned treatment.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Visual-vestibular stimulation interferes with information processing in young and older humans.

Attention has been implicated in postural control and other tasks requiring sensory integration. The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of attention in sensory-motor processing of vestibular and combined visual-vestibular information during seated rotations using a dual-task interference approach. We hypothesized that auditory information processing would be influenced by concurrent visual-ocular, vestibulo-ocular, or combined visual-vestibulo-ocular processing. We further hypothesized that the effect would be greater in older subjects. Twenty older subjects (10 women, 10 men, 69.3+/-3.2 years) and 20 young subjects (10 women, 10 men, 23.5+/-2.9 years) were asked to perform information-processing tasks while they underwent several types of vestibular, visual-vestibular, and ocular motor paradigms. The information-processing tasks were: (1) an auditory simple reaction-time task (SRT), (2) an auditory go-no-go (disjunctive) reaction-time task (DRT), and (3) an auditory forced-choice task (CRT). The visual-vestibular-ocular motor conditions included: (1) no movement/darkness (NO), (2) no movement/fixation (FIX), (3) no movement/pursuit (P), (4) earth-vertical axis rotation (EVAR) in darkness, (5) EVAR with fixation (E-FIX), (6) off-vertical axis rotation (OVAR) in darkness, and (7) OVAR with fixation (O-FIX). Results showed that older subjects had longer reaction times for all combinations of stimulus condition and reaction-time task compared with young subjects. Compared with the NO baseline, reaction times during EVAR were longer for young and older subjects and during OVAR were longer for the young subjects. For FIX and P, the reaction times during P exceeded those during FIX and during NO for both groups. For E-FIX and O-FIX, reaction times did not differ from those during EVAR and OVAR. The interference with information processing by concurrent vestibular stimulation in the dark may be based upon cortical inhibition of auditory processes by vestibular stimulation. Eye movements induced by EVAR showed an increased phase lead during reaction-time tasks, suggesting altered vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) dynamics, possibly based on cerebellar-mediated changes in velocity storage. Since fixation of a head-fixed visual target did not add to the effect of rotation in the dark, a further implication of our results is that VOR-fixation while performing a concurrent information-processing task may be accomplished primarily by VOR suppression rather than by VOR cancellation.

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMed1999

Heuristic-systematic information processing and risk judgment.

The heuristic-systematic information processing model (HSM) holds that individuals will use one or both of these modes of information processing when attempting to evaluate information in order to arrive at a judgment. Systematic processing is defined by effortful scrutiny and comparison of information, whereas heuristic processing is defined by the use of cues to arrive more easily at a judgment. Antecedents to the two processing modes include information sufficiency, motivation, and self-efficacy. Structural equation modeling is used to examine competing configuration of this model and to evaluate the model as appropriate for predicting risk judgment. The model also is evaluated across three groups that vary with respect to their level of concern. These analyses are executed within a case study involving an epidemiological investigation of a suspected cancer cluster. The analysis confirms the HSM's theoretically proposed structure and shows it to be a useful vehicle for evaluating risk judgment. In the overall analysis, antecedent variables generally function as specified by theory. Systematic processing is predicted by greater motivation. Heuristic processing is predicted by information sufficiency. Self-efficacy is a significant predictor of both processing modes. And heuristic processing is shown to be associated with judgment of less risk. However, when the analysis is contrasted across three groups (those concerned about cancer, not concerned and uncertain) it is shown that the model is significantly more robust for the uncertain group. This finding may have implications for the use of the HSM in risk research specifically, and in field research generally.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1982

Cognitive information processing and learning mechanisms of the brain.

The view that the two cerebral hemispheres of the human brain are characterized by different cognitive processing modes that handle information received in various forms is commonly accepted by neurobehavioral scientists and neuropsychologists. Selected neuroanatomical, electrophysiological, neurochemical, biochemical, and neuropsychological data that bear on a cognitive information-processing model of the brain are presented. Processes involved in memory functions are discussed in regard to the nature of thought and the characteristics of mental life, e.g., internalization of thought, perception, arousal, attention, cognitive development, problem solving, the development of cognitive encoding, and selective recall. We present a position that argues for the brain as being flexible vs. fixed in its characteristics and limitations, drawing from various theories and viewpoints. We also present a review of selected mechanisms believed to be involved in brain-behavior processes, e.g., learning, cognition, pain, emotion, reward, cognitive development, and memory formation. A major theme addressed in terms of human information processing is that cognitive functioning, in a variety of instances, comprises subsets of more general processes, e.g., selective recall, cueing that is capable of addressing schemas, notions of inhibition and disinhibition, and the modulation of excitatory properties of certain neural transmitter substances. Questions such as "how is information stored in memory in the first place?" and "how do elements of motivation (i.e., goal orientation) get connected and then send their messages to appropriate inbound behaviors?" are addressed from the point of view that learning, although not understood completely, is somehow involved. Another unresolved question of theoretical and practical significance that we address is "how does learning result in neural connections?" Such questions are discussed in light of their implications for human memory, thought, and behavioral events.

Arousal↗
PubMed2001

Specificity of information processing styles to depressive symptoms in youth psychiatric inpatients.

Although information processing has been widely studied with depressed adults, little emphasis has been placed on the specificity of resultant findings to depression, as opposed to other psychological disorders. Analogously, even less effort has been directed toward examining the information processing styles of depressed children and adolescents. The present study investigated the specificity of information processing styles to depression and anxiety among 58 youth psychiatric inpatients. To assess information processing, we used a self-referent encoding task, in which participants were presented with positive and negative adjectives; participants were asked whether these adjectives described them or not, and were then tested on recall of the adjectives. After controlling for age and gender, lower rates of positive adjective endorsement and lower rates of positive adjective recall were found to be associated with depression, but not anxiety. Additionally, negative adjective endorsement was associated with anxiety symptoms. These results suggest specific cognitive features of depressive symptoms.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

Information processing time adds useful information to traditional recall measures.

Clinical work and research activity using memory tests typically use measures of recall. While these measures are useful, they may restrict the nature of memory assessments. A memory test was developed to record encoding and recall times. Analyses were then conducted to determine whether these encoding and recall times related to recall performance. Results indicated that encoding time and recall time related significantly to recall performance. Data also revealed that while the strength of the relationship between encoding time and recall errors generally remained constant, the relationship between recall time and recall errors decreased as task demands increased.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1990

Structural information processing in peripheral vision.

Structural visual information processing was investigated in peripheral vision. Perceptual completion, as observed at the blind spot, occurred across a vertical blank stripe in a test pattern, presented in the peripheral visual field. That is, a shape, organized by structural processing, was perceived under critical visual conditions when it was presented in peripheral vision. The results indicate that structural processing, as indicated by perceptual completion, occurs in the peripheral visual information handling process. The results suggest that structural processing of shape information is built into the peripheral visual system and reduces the information load on the higher visual processes under conditions in which visual information is not adequate.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Efficacy of visual information processing in short-term hypoxia].

The effectiveness of visual information processing during short hypoxia modeled by arbitrary external respiratory standstill (AERS) of maximum duration was investigated using our computer program LANDOLT. This program makes it possible to analyze the number of seen, missed, correctly and incorrectly marked signs, all mistakes, the amount and velocity of information processing, to determine the coefficient of accuracy of the task carrying-out. An increase in the amount and velocity of information processing with a less number of mistakes in the experimental group with stronger andlonger hypoxia during AERS can be explained by neuronal influences on the canals of visual information processing from the activating system respiratory center-reticular formation.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Information processing in social phobia.

Cognitive theories suggest that information processing biases play a central role in the development and maintenance of emotional disorders. The present article reviews recent studies of information processing biases in social phobia and considers the significance of the findings for understanding the persistence of the condition. Taken together, the studies suggest that social phobia is characterized by biases in the following: interpretation of external social events; detection of negative responses from other people; the balance of attention between external and self-processing; the use of internal information to make inferences about how one appears to others; recall of negative information about one's perceived, observable self; and by a variety of problematic anticipatory and post-event types of processing. If such biases play a role in maintaining social anxiety, experimental manipulation of the biases should modulate anxiety responses. Several recent studies have confirmed this prediction, but further research is required. Methodological limitations of existing information processing studies are highlighted. Finally, possible neurobiological correlates are discussed and suggestions are made for future attempts to link neurobiology and cognitive psychology.

Attention↗
PubMed1983

Temporal integration deficit in visual information processing by chronic schizophrenics.

The primary objective of the present study was to evaluate speed of visual information processing of chronic schizophrenics and normal subjects. Retarded information processing by schizophrenics has been attributed to a dysfunction at the earliest stage of processing. In the present study, by using a backward-masking paradigm and varying target duration we were able to evaluate whether schizophrenic and normals conform to an iconic or visual persistence theory of processing. Also, we evaluated whether schizophrenic and normal information processing is a function of the total time a stimulus is available for viewing prior to disruption (stimulus onset asynchrony, SOA), or whether it is the time following the stimulus offset prior to disruption by the mask (interstimulus interval, ISI). The former conforms more closely to a visual persistence and the latter to an iconic notion of processing. The results indicate that schizophrenics and normals conform to the processing of information as a function of the SOA as opposed to ISI. However, schizophrenic processing during the period of temporal integration (i.e., up to 130 msec) was significantly retarded when compared to normal controls. These findings suggest that for chronic schizophrenics, visual signals associated with target processing during the temporal integration period have either decayed at a slower rate or are more unstable than those of normals. Also discussed is the compatability of these findings with a visual persistence as opposed to an iconic model of information processing.

Form Perception↗
PubMed1993

Behavioural evidence for parallel information processing in the visual system of insects.

Many flying insects display remarkable visual agility in capturing prey or pursuing a potential mate. They are capable of detecting, recognising, tracking and capturing a rapidly moving object on the wing. These manoeuvres are usually completed in a couple of seconds. The interval of time between the absorption of light quanta by the photoreceptors and the generation of an appropriate behavioural response is very short, encompassing only a few tens of milliseconds. In this time the visual nervous system has abstracted the essential features of the object, and recognized it (where appropriate), or measured its movement and computed an interception course. As an elementary unit of computation, we know that a neuron in the nervous system is considerably slower than, say, a flip-flop in the CPU of a modern computer. However, it is evident from the visual performance of an insect that the nervous system as a whole processes optical information much faster than a modern computer does. Rapid processing of visual information by animals therefore has to be attributed to the structure and the modus operandi of the nervous system.

Animals↗