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PubMed1999

Possible influences of ginseng on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of warfarin in rats.

We evaluated the significance of a reported clinical case of drug-drug interaction between ginseng and warfarin using a robust pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic approach in a rat model. The influence of ginseng on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of oral warfarin after a single dose (2 mg kg(-1)) and at steady state (0.2 mg kg(-1) daily x 6 days) was studied in male Sprague-Dawley rats. Prothrombin time was employed as a pharmacodynamic index. Warfarin plasma concentration and vitamin K content in the ginseng extract were assessed by validated HPLC assays. The pharmacokinetics of warfarin after a single dose were not altered in the presence of ginseng; peak plasma concentration (control 7.8+/-0.5; ginseng 7.3+/-2.5 microg mL(-1)), time to peak (control 2.6+/-1.0; ginseng 3.1+/-1.1 h), elimination half-life (control 14.3+/-5.8; ginseng 10.6+/-3.1 h), and oral clearance (control 17.5+/-3.3; ginseng 20.2+/-5.5 mL h(-1)) were not significantly different (P>0.05). Similarly, alterations in the pharmacokinetics of warfarin were not detected under the multiple dosing paradigm. Under both dosing conditions, ginseng also showed no significant impact on the pharmacodynamics of warfarin as assessed by the area under the prothrombin time vs time curve (multiple dosing; control 3776+/-619, ginseng 3830+/-362 sh) and maximum prothrombin time (control 57.2+/-11.8, ginseng 63.3+/-9.1 s). Furthermore, the content of vitamin K was undetectable in the ginseng decoction. In conclusion, current data obtained in the rat showed no significant impact of ginseng on the pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics of warfarin when they are concomitantly administered.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Anticarcinogenic effect of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer and identification of active compounds.

The failure to improve the five-year survival rate of cancer patients, from one in three in the 1960s to one in two in the 1970s, stimulated awareness of the importance of primary prevention of cancer. Korean investigators carried out extensive long-term anticarcinogenicity experiments with 2000 newborn mice to investigate whether Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer inhibited carcinogenesis induced by several chemical carcinogens in 1978. There was a 22% decrease (p<0.05) in the incidence of urethane induced lung adenoma by the combined use of red ginseng extract. In the group sacrificed at 56 weeks after the treatment with aflatoxin B1, the incidence of hepatoma significantly decreased to 75% by the addition of red ginseng extract (p<0.05). The result showed that natural products can provide hope for human cancer prevention. By the newly established '9 week medium-term anticarcinogenicity test model of lung tumors in mice' (Yun's model), we confirmed significant anticarcinogenic effects of powders and extracts of the 6- yr-old dried fresh ginseng, 5- and 6-yr old white ginsengs, and 4-, 5-, and 6-yr old red ginseng. We also demonstrated that the anticarcinogencity of ginseng was more prominent in aged or heat treated extracts of ginseng and red ginseng made by steaming. To investigate the active components for cancer prevention, several fractions of 6-yr old fresh ginseng and red ginseng, four semi-synthetic ginsenoside Rh1, Rh2, Rg3 and Rg5, major saponin components in red ginseng, were prepared. Among the ginsenosides, Rg3 and Rg5 showed statistically significant reduction of lung tumor incidence and Rh2 had a tendency of decreasing the incidence. Ginsenoside Rg3, Rg5 and Rh2 were found to be active anticarcinogenic compounds. Rg3, Rg5 and Rh2 are active components in red ginseng, and they prevent cancer either singularly or synergistically.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

[A study on the origins of 'Korean ginseng'].

Generally, the originating area of ginseng is known to be in Shangdang, China. The originating time, which has been estimated according to textual and archeological outcomes, is known to be the first century B.C., during the Han dynasty era. This can be referred to as the 'Chinese origin theory of ginseng'. According to such hypothesis, the Chinese only discovered ginseng 'suddenly' during this time when it should have been self-generating for thousands of years before. However, Shangdang has been one of the historic centers of China since the ancient period and specially took prominence in terms of the beginning and development of Chinese pharmaceutics, which makes this theory largely dismissable. Moreover, there were six characters that expressed at the early stage and were used together with each other up to the days of Ming and Qing dynasty. Also, this theory did not explain clearly about the formation of ginseng character. Hence, it is fairly obvious that the 'Chinese origin theory of ginseng' do not answer appropriately to the fundamental questions of the origin of ginseng. In order to approach such mystery , perspectives need to be newly shifted to the 'outer origins' of Chinese ginseng. In this case. 'outer' only points to Manchuria and Korea, since these areas are the only candidates regarding the natural circumstances of ginseng growth. So, it can be inferred that ginseng has first been identified with the locals of Manchuria and Korea, and then underwent influx to China to have been used as a medicinal stuff. Following such theory, the reason why ginseng suddenly appeared in Han China was that around this period, specially during the Han commandery epoch, it had just been introduced to China as a part of Korean culture. Also the reason there are many characters can be said that the sound of indigenous Korean 'sim' was considered in respect to selecting similarly-articulated words. Reaching such conclusion, the formating principle of can be no other than borrowing -sound character. To summarize our discussion, it is still unknown when was the actual origin of genseng but it was far earlier than two thousand years ago as was previously accepted as the origin of this medicine plant. . The originating place was not Shangdang of Shansi area of China as was commonly accepted, but Manchuria and Korea. Then, ginseng must have been known and utilized by the locals of these areas. This is 'Korean origin theory of ginseng' and simultaneously an indirect examination of the origin of 'Korean ginseng.'

China↗
PubMed1996

Saponin contents and anticarcinogenic effects of ginseng depending on types and ages in mice.

AIM: To compare the anticarcinogenic effects of fresh, white, and red ginseng (Panax ginseng C A Meyer) roots and their saponins. METHODS: Lung adenoma in newborn N:GP (S) mice was induced by a subcutaneous injection of benzo(a)pyrene 0.5 mg. After weaning, ginseng powders or extracts were given in the drinking water for 6 wk. In the 9th wk the incidence and multiplicity of lung adenoma were counted. RESULTS: Anticarcinogenic effects were found in 6-year-dried fresh ginseng, 5- and 6-year white ginseng, and 4-, 5-, and 6-year-red ginseng powders. Anticarcinogenic effects were also found in 6-year-dried fresh ginseng, 5- and 6-year-white ginseng, and 4-, 5-, and 6-year-red ginseng extracts. The content of major ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, Re, Rf, Rg1 showed a little higher tendency in fresh or white ginsengs than red ginseng. This tendency was increased as the cultivation ages were increased. But there was no relationship was found between ginsenoside contents and preparation types or cultivation ages. CONCLUSION: Long-cultivated ginseng and red ginseng contain a higher amount of anticarcinogenic components.

Adenoma↗
PubMed2002

The effect of ginseng on bile-pancreatic secretion in the rat. Increase in proteins and inhibition of total lipids and cholesterol secretion.

Ginseng is one of the most popular herbal remedies. Studies were performed in anaesthetized rats to examine the effect of ginseng on bile secretion. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were anaesthetized with intraperitoneal (i.p.) urethane (1.25 g kg(-1)) and equipped with biliary cannulas inserted into the bile duct through the sphincter of Oddi. Rats were treated with a single i.p. injection of ginseng at 25, 50 or 100 mg kg(-1) (1 ml(-1)) 30 min before bile collection; the control group received i.p. saline only at 1 ml(-1)volume. The effect of multiple doses of ginseng on bile volume and biliary composition was also studied. Ginseng was given in the higher dose of 100 mg kg(-1) (1 ml(-1), i.p.) every 12 hours for 2 days. Bile was collected in 15 min fractions for 90 min. Bile flow (bile-pancreatic juice), biliary excretion of total proteins, cholesterol and total lipids were measured. The single administration of different doses (25, 50 and 100 mg kg (-1)) of ginseng reduced basal bile secretion in a dose-dependent manner. Single-dose administration of ginseng at 100 mg kg(-1) caused 32.9% reduction in basal bile flow. Meanwhile, mean basal bile flow was reduced by 15.1% in rats treated with multiple doses of ginseng at 100 mg kg(-1) for two days. Biliary protein concentrations were significantly increased after single- or multiple-dose administration of ginseng, but protein output was only significantly increased (33%) in rats treated with ginseng (100 mg kg(-1)) twice a day for 2 days. Biliary total lipids and cholesterol concentration and outputs were significantly reduced after single or multiple administration of ginseng. In conclusion, administration of ginseng in the rat resulted in a reduction of bile flow and in bile secretion of total lipids and cholesterol, while it increased the secretion of proteins in a dose-dependent manner. The precise mechanisms underlying these effects remain to be elucidated. The findings indicate the need for clinical trials for the effect of this herb on bile composition and flow in man in view of a possible modulatory effect for the herb on gallstone formation.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Cancer chemopreventive and therapeutic activities of red ginseng.

Red ginseng extract A and B are the active components of Panax ginseng. Red ginseng is a classical traditional Chinese medicine. Among Chinese herbs, red ginseng has been considered as one of the tonics. Many studies indicated that red ginseng could enhance immune function of the human body. The effects of red ginseng extracts on transplantable tumors, proliferation of lymphocyte, two-stage model and rat liver lipid peroxidation were studied. In a two-stage model, red ginseng extracts had a significant cancer chemoprevention. At 50-400 mg/kg, they could inhibit DMBA/Croton oil-induced skin papilloma in mice, decrease the incidence of papilloma, prolong the latent period of tumor occurrence and reduce tumor number per mouse in a dose-dependent manner. Red ginseng extract B could effectively inhibit the Fe2+/cysteine-induced lipid peroxidation of rat liver microsome, suggesting that red ginseng extract B has a stronger antioxidative effect than that of extract A. The results indicated that red ginseng extracts (50 approximately 400 mg/kg) could significantly inhibit the growth of transplantable mouse sarcoma S180 and melanoma B16. Red ginseng extracts A (0.5 mg/ml) and B (0.1 and 0.25 mg/ml) might effectively promote the transformation of T lymphocyte, but there was no influence on lymphocyte proliferation stimulated by concanavalin A. This suggests that red ginseng extracts have potent tumor therapeutic activity and improve the cell immune system.

9,10-Dimethyl-1,2-benzanthracene↗
PubMed2004

Decreasing, null and increasing effects of eight popular types of ginseng on acute postprandial glycemic indices in healthy humans: the role of ginsenosides.

BACKGROUND: It is unclear whether other ginseng sources can replicate the glycemic-lowering efficacy observed previously with American ginseng and whether ginsenosides are mediators. We assessed the effect of eight popular ginseng types on postprandial plasma glucose (PG) and insulin (PI) indices, linking effects to ginsenoside profiles. METHODS: Using a double-blind, randomized, multiple-crossover design, 12 healthy participants (gender: 6M:6F, age: 34 +/- 3 y, BMI: 25.8 +/- 1.2 kg/m(2)) received 10 3g treatments: American, American-wild, Asian, Asian-red, Vietnamese-wild, Siberian, Japanese-rhizome, and Sanchi ginsengs and two placebos. Each treatment was given 40-minutes before a 75g-oral-glucose-tolerance-test (75g-OGTT) with blood drawn at -40, 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120-minutes. HPLC-UV analysis quantified seven principal ginsenosides. RESULTS: Two-factor analysis showed the main effects of ginseng-type and time were significant for PG and PI, with an interaction for PG (p < 0.05). Subsequent one-factor analysis showed an effect of ginseng-type on 90-min-PG and 90-min-PI (p < 0.05). This was reflected in effects on peak-PG, area under the curve (AUC)-PG and AUC-PI (p < 0.05). But the effect on 90-min-PI and AUC-PI were significant (p < 0.05) only in overweight participants (BMI > 25 kg/m(2), n = 6). Planned comparisons with placebo showed a tendency for American ginseng and Vietnamese ginseng to lower 90-min-PG (p < 0.06), while Asian ginseng raised peak-PG and AUC-PG, American-wild ginseng raised 120-min-PG, and Siberian ginseng raised 90-min-PG, 120-min-PG, and AUC-PG (p < 0.05). Stepwise-multiple-regression assessed the protopanaxadiol:protopanaxatriol (PPD:PPT)-ginsenoside ratio as the sole predictor (p < 0.05) for 90-min-PG (beta = -0.43, r(2) = 0.072), AUC-PG (beta = -0.25, r(2) = 0.06), 90-min-PI (beta = -0.26, r(2) = 0.065), AUC-PI (beta = -0.20, r(2) = 0.04). CONCLUSIONS: Ginseng has variable glycemic effects, in which the PPD:PPT-ginsenoside ratio might be involved. But the low variance explained suggests the involvement of other unmeasured ginsenoside or non-ginsenoside components.

Acute Disease↗
PubMed2004

Intraperitoneal injection of ginseng extract enhances both immunoglobulin and cytokine production in mice.

Ginseng is one of the most widely used Chinese herbal medicines. In this report, the relatively short-term effect of ginseng extract on the immunoglobulin production and cytokine production was studied. The ginseng extract was prepared by boiling the ground ginseng root in 50% ethanol. The specific pathogen-free mice were intraperitoneally (i.p.) injected with various doses of ginseng extract for 3 consecutive days. The results indicated that the serum levels of immunoglobulin (Ig)M, IgG and IgA were significantly elevated after the mice were i.p. injected with 4 g/kg/day of ginseng extract. Under in vitro condition, the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated spleen cells showed a dose-dependent increase in secretion of IgM, IgG and IgA. However, at a higher dosage (4 g/kg/day), the amount of IgA secretion began to decline. The serum level of interleukin (IL)-2, interferon (IFN)-gamma[T-helper (Th) 1-type cytokines] and IL-4 and IL-10 (Th2-type cytokines) were significantly elevated after the mice were i.p. injected with 2 g/kg/day or higher doses of ginseng extract. The amount of cytokine secretion by concanavalin A (Con A)-stimulated spleen cells was also significantly enhanced after the mice were i.p. injected with 0.4 g/kg/day or higher dose of ginseng extracted. To further confirm the results from enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), the spleen cells were cultured for 36 hours in the presence of 1 microgram/ml of Con A. Total mRNA was isolated and assayed for mRNA expression using reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The results revealed that expression of IL-2 and IFN-gamma mRNA were dose-dependently enhanced by the ethanol extract of ginseng. The levels of IL-4 and IL-10 mRNA expression were also elevated in the spleen cells of ginseng-treated mice in comparison with that of the control group. In addition, we observed that the concentrations of IgG1, IgG2a and IgG2b in culture supernatants of spleen cells were dose-dependently increased by in vivo treatment of ginseng extract, suggesting that both Th1- and Th2-type cytokines were involved in IgG production. Our observation in this study demonstrated that the Chinese herbal drug ginseng was able to regulate antibody production by augmenting Th1- (IL-2, IFN-gamma) and Th2-type (IL-4, IL-10) cytokine production.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Long-term oral administration of ginseng extract modulates humoral immune response and spleen cell functions.

Ginseng radix (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) is a popular herbal medicine in Oriental countries. We investigated the effect of long-term oral administration of ginseng extract on the antigen-specific antibody response. Male BALB/c mice were treated orally for 30 consecutive days with 2 g/kg of a 50% ethanol extract of ginseng root. Mice treated with ginseng and immunized with ovalbumin (OVA), resulting in an eight-fold increase in titers of anti-OVA immunoglobulin (Ig)G in the serum compared to the group receiving OVA immunization without ginseng treatment; the level of IgG was also significantly elevated in the mice treated with ginseng and immunized with OVA. Mice treated with ginseng without OVA immunization exhibited significantly reduced IgG and IgA production by spleen cells. However, IgG production was not affected in mice treated with ginseng and OVA immunization in spleen cells. Interleukin (IL)-2, interferon (IFN)-gamma and IL-4 secretion by spleen cells from either ginseng-treated mice or OVA-immunized mice were down-regulated compared to that in the control group; while the production of IL-10 was unchanged. The percentage of CD8+ cells was significantly reduced in spleen cells from ginseng-treated, OVA-immunized mice. Thus, long-term oral administration of ginseng extract appears to potentiate humoral immune response but suppress spleen cell functions.

Administration, Oral↗
PubMed2002

Panax ginseng: a systematic review of adverse effects and drug interactions.

Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer is a perennial herb native to Korea and China and has been used as an herbal remedy in eastern Asia for thousands of years. Modern therapeutic claims refer to vitality, immune function, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, improvement of cognitive and physical performance and sexual function. A recent systematic review of randomised controlled trials found that the efficacy of ginseng root extract could not be established beyond doubt for any of these indications. In order to obtain a balanced assessment of the therapeutic value of P. ginseng it is also necessary to consider the safety profile. In view of the extremely widespread use of P. ginseng it seems important to ask whether this herbal medicine involves health risks for the consumer. This review was conducted as a systematic attempt to document and evaluate all the available safety data on P. ginseng root extracts. Systematic searches were performed in five electronic databases and the reference lists of all papers located were checked for further relevant publications. All articles containing original data on adverse events and drug interactions with P. ginseng were included. Information was also requested from 12 manufacturers of ginseng preparations, the spontaneous reporting schemes of the WHO and national drug safety bodies. No language restrictions were imposed. Data from clinical trials suggest that the incidence of adverse events with ginseng monopreparations is similar to that with placebo. The most commonly experienced adverse events are headache, sleep and gastrointestinal disorders. The possibility of more serious adverse events is indicated in isolated case reports and data from spontaneous reporting schemes; however, causality is often difficult to determine from the evidence provided. Combination products containing ginseng as one of several constituents have been associated with serious adverse events and even fatalities. Interpretation of these cases is difficult as ingredients other than P. ginseng may have caused the problems. Possible drug interactions have been reported between P. ginseng and warfarin, phenelzine and alcohol. Collectively, these data suggest that P. ginseng monopreparations are rarely associated with adverse events or drug interactions. The ones that are documented are usually mild and transient. Combined preparations are more often associated with such events but causal attribution is usually not possible.

Clinical Trials as Topic↗
PubMed2003

Promotion of hair growth by ginseng radix on cultured mouse vibrissal hair follicles.

A 70% methanol extract from red ginseng (steamed and dried roots of Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer, a kind of Ginseng Radix) had superior activity to that of white ginseng (peeled and dried root of P. ginseng, another kind of Ginseng Radix) in a hair growth promoting assay using mouse vibrissal follicles in organ culture. Of the major constituents of P. ginseng, ginsenoside-Rb(1) (G-Rb(1)) exhibited activity, but ginsenoside-Rg(1) (G-Rg(1)) and -Ro (G-Ro) were ineffective. Additionally, 20(S)-ginsenoside-Rg(3) (20(S)-G-Rg(3)) formed by the processing of red ginseng from the crude root of P. ginseng also showed hair growth promoting activity. These results indicate that Ginseng Radix possesses hair growth promoting activity, and its bioactive components are partially attributable to the ginseng saponin components mentioned above.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Ginseng reduces the micronuclei yield in lymphocytes after irradiation.

To assess the effect of Chinese ginseng in modifying the radiation-induced micronuclei (MN) yield in human G(o) peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL), we conducted the cytokinesis-blocked (CB) MN assay in blood samples obtained from healthy volunteers (n=4). Before (137)Cs ex vivo irradiation, mononuclear cell cultures from each sample were incubated 24 h with different concentrations (0-2000 microg ml(-1)) of crude water extract of ginseng dry root. We found that (1) at 0 Gy and without the presence of ginseng, MN yield (mean+/-S.E.M.) was 11.7+/-2.7 per 1000 binucleated (BN) cells. Different concentrations of ginseng crude water extract did not affect the MN yields and the proliferative activity of PBL; (2) after 1 and 2 Gy exposure, radiation alone sharply increased the MN yields, respectively, to 119.6+/-17.4 and 340.5+/-20.9 per 1000 BN cells. However, treatment with ginseng for 24 h before radiation exposure, resulted in a significant linear decline of MN yields as ginseng concentration increases. Compared to radiation alone, the extent to which ginseng water extract reduced the MN yields induced by 1 Gy exposure was 46.0% at 1500 microg ml(-1) and 61.5% at 2000 microg ml(-1), and with 2 Gy exposure, it was 38.6% at 1500 microg ml(-1) and 46.5% at 2000 microg ml(-1); (3) MN data suggested a tendency for overdispersion relative to the Poisson model; and (4) over the different levels of ginseng concentrations, the trend in micronucleated BN index was as similar as that of the MN yields. These results indicated that (1) ginseng crude water extract exerts no apparent cytogentic effect on human PBL at concentrations up to 2000 microg ml(-1) as evaluated by the CBMN assay; and (2) the protection of ginseng water extract against (137)Cs-induced MN in human PBL is concentration-dependence. Therefore, our findings indicated that ginseng may have therapeutic value as a possible radioprotector for normal tissue during radiotherapy of cancer patients.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Ginseng enhances contextual fear conditioning and neurogenesis in rats.

Panax Ginseng is a commonly used galenical known to have an enhancing effect on learning. Neurogenesis in the hippocampus has been shown to be necessary for hippocampus/amygdala-dependent learning tasks. To investigate the role of Ginseng in neurogenesis and learning of rats, we administered both Ginseng and BrdU for five consecutive days. As a result, Ginseng increased the number of BrdU-positive cells in the dentate gyrus in a dose-dependent manner. Further, we administered one dose of BrdU after Ginseng treatment for five consecutive days, and the number of BrdU-positive cells did not increase significantly. However, when one dose of BrdU was given 1 day before the following five consecutive days of Ginseng treatment, the number of BrdU-positive cells markedly increased in the hippocampus. Therefore, it is likely that Ginseng enhances not proliferation but survival of newly generated neurons in the hippocampus. Second, we administered both Ginseng and BrdU to rats for five consecutive days. One day after the last Ginseng and BrdU co-administration, contextual fear conditioning (CFC) was conducted. Ginseng in a dose-dependent manner increased the % freezing time and the number of BrdU-positive cells in the dentate gyrus of rats that received CFC. Thus, an increase in CFC-related neurogenesis may be one mechanism of Ginseng's properties to enhance learning ability.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1999

Production of ginseng and its bioactive components in plant cell culture: current technological and applied aspects.

Ginseng (the root of Panax ginseng CA Mayer) is a valuable oriental herb, which has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for thousands of years, both as a disease-healing drug and a general tonic. The medicinal value of ginseng is now also widely recognized in the west and the world ginseng market is expanding. The current supply of ginseng depends mainly on field cultivation, which is a slow and laborious process. Plant cell and tissue culture methods have been explored as potentially more efficient alternatives for the mass production of ginseng and its bioactive components. Research into ginseng cell and tissue cultures started in the early 1960s and commercial applications have been underway since the late 1980s. The ginseng cell culture has continued to attract considerable research and development effort in recent years as scientists seek to understand and optimize the culture conditions. In this paper, we review recent studies on ginseng cell culture processes, focusing on the physiological and bioengineering factors affecting the productivity of ginseng biomass and useful metabolites (e.g. ginseng saponin and polysaccharide) and the progress and concerns in large-scale applications.

Bioreactors↗
PubMed2000

Efficacy and safety of ginseng.

Ginseng (Panax ginseng, C.A. Meyer) has been a popular herbal remedy used in eastern Asian cultures for thousands of years. In North America, the ginseng species indigenous to both Canada and the United States (Panax quinquefolium) represents an important industry for both domestic and export markets. There are numerous theories and claims describing the efficacy of ginseng, which can combat stress, enhance both the central and immune systems and contribute towards maintaining optimal oxidative status against certain chronic disease states and aging. Risk issues concerning the safety of ginseng at recommended dosages are less prominent and scientifically based. While some epidemiological or clinical studies have reported indications of efficacy for specific health benefits or potential toxicity, there are an equal number of studies that provide contradictory evidence. This situation has led to questionable conclusions concerning specific health benefits or risks associated with ginseng. Recent advances in the development of standardized extracts for both Panax ginseng (G-115) and Panax quinquefolius (CNT-2000) have and will continue to assist in the assessment of efficacy and safety standards for ginseng products. This paper reviews the scientific literature and evidence for ginseng efficacy and safety derived mostly from in vitro and animal studies and places emphasis on the need for more randomized, double-blinded, placebo clinical studies that can provide unequivocal conclusions. An example of the efficacy and safety of ginseng is provided with the description of biological activity of a North American ginseng extract (NAGE), which includes illustrating mechanisms for antioxidant activity without prooxidant properties.

Antioxidants↗
PubMed2000

DNA identification of commercial ginseng samples.

An investigation was performed with the objective of developing a DNA-based protocol for the identification of commercial samples of the herbal compound ginseng. There are currently two major herbal products referred to as ginseng. They are Korean or Chinese ginseng (Panax ginseng) and American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius). The market for ginseng in the United States is estimated to be approximately $300 million annually. Current tests for ginseng species identification rely on expert botanical identification of fresh plant/root specimens or on biochemical characterization of active and marker compounds (e.g., ginsenosides). For the determination of the feasibility of ginseng identification by DNA analysis, a strategy based on the direct DNA sequence analysis of the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer region was developed. Other genetic tests included sequence analysis of the chloroplast ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase large subunit gene and DNA fingerprinting by the rapid amplification of polymorphic DNA technique. To confirm the results, each ginseng sample was identified using high-performance liquid chromatography. All methods were successful in distinguishing American from Korean ginseng. In addition, the protocol was improved for the isolation of genomic and plastid DNA from commercial ginseng preparations by incorporating an impact homogenization step into the standard column chromatography purification procedure.

Base Sequence↗
PubMed1977

The chemical constituents of ginseng plants.

The dried roots and rhizomes of ginseng (P. ginseng C. A. Meyer) contain many physiologically important constituents. These include ginseng saponins, ginseng oils and phytosterol, carbohydrates and sugars, organic acids, nitrogenous substances, amino acids and peptides, vitamins and minerals, and certain enzymes that have been isolated and characterized. Among these, ginseng saponins are proven to be the principal and most active constituents. Chemical research, therefore, has been focused on these saponins--their extraction, purification, identification, isolation of aglycones (genins), and biosynthesis. So far 13 saponins have been isolated and identified and these, which have been called ginsenosides or panaxosides, are triterpenes of dammarane and oleanane structures. Although American, Japanese, San-ch'i, Himalayan, and Siberian ginseng roots contain many saponins similar to those found in ginseng, the overall components in these ginseng species are quite different. The above-ground parts, particularly the leaves, of these ginseng plants contain many of the saponins normally present in the roots. The search for economical sources of ginseng saponins from nature and even chemical synthesis may likely become the active ginseng research of the future. Continued, meticulous studies are undoubtedly needed to develop these natural panacea into useful, efficacious modern remedies.

Acids↗
PubMed2003

Proteome analysis of the responses of Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer leaves to high light: use of electrospray ionization quadrupole-time of flight mass spectrometry and expressed sequence tag data.

We performed comparative proteomic analyses in order to understand the physiological responses of ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer) to high light (HL). As a first step, we analyzed the proteins expressed in ginseng leaves. Proteins extracted from leaves were separated by two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Protein spots were identified by tandem mass spectra analysis using electrospray ionization quadrupole-time of flight mass spectrometry (ESI Q-TOF MS). We used a ginseng expressed sequence tag (EST) database as well as a nonredundant protein database from NCBI to identify proteins. Eighty-one proteins were identified using the nr protein database, 51 of which were also verified from the ginseng EST database. An additional 66 proteins were identified only from the ginseng EST database. Proteins that function in energy metabolism, protein stabilization, and protection against oxidative stress were abundant. To understand the light responses of ginseng leaves, we studied time dependent changes in expressed proteins produced by 0-4 h of HL exposure. Six HL-responsive proteins were identified: three proteins were up-regulated (cytosolic small heat-shock protein, cytosolic ascorbate peroxidase, and putative major latex-like protein) and three proteins were down-regulated (Rieske Fe/S protein, putative 3-beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/isomerase-like protein, and oxygen-evolving enhancer-like protein). Our results show that the ginseng EST database combined with ESI Q-TOF MS analysis can be used to identify ginseng proteins and to elucidate the protective mechanism of ginseng against HL induced damage.

Amino Acid Sequence↗