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PubMed1986

Friendships of older men and women: exchange patterns and satisfaction.

In this study we examined the relation between perceived equity of exchanges and friendship satisfaction for a sample of 110 older men and women. Respondents were interviewed concerning their relationship with their best friend and one other friend in their support network. Perceived equity was a significant predictor of friendship satisfaction only in the case of the other friend. In addition, results showed that men were involved in more equitable friendships than were women. Discussion focuses on the importance of equity consideration and gender differences in the friendships of older adults.

Aged↗
PubMed1990

Close friendships among senior adults.

The purpose of this research was to evaluate the relative contributions of personal, affective, and social exchange characteristics to satisfaction with the best friendship. Senior adults (N = 76) described and evaluated their best friendships in terms of positive and negative affect, equity, reciprocity of social support, and satisfaction. The individual's endorsement of communal and exchange orientations were included as personal characteristics. The study confirms that a communal orientation enhances satisfaction with a best friendship and that conflict and negativity detract from it. Social exchange characteristics were not related to friendship satisfaction. The need to reevaluate the role of social exchange in close relationships is discussed.

Affect↗
PubMed2004

The extension of school-based inter- and intraracial children's friendships: influences on psychosocial well-being.

Children's (N=142) school friendships with same versus different race peers were coded for prevalence and the extent to which parents maintained social relationships with these friends (a proxy for extension of friendships beyond the school context). Membership in integrated versus nonintegrated social networks at school was unassociated with psychosocial well-being. Out-of-school extension of interracial friendships was linked with greater social competence among Black children. Black children whose friendships with both same and different race peers were extended beyond the school context reported higher levels of self-esteem.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Friend influence on prosocial behavior: The role of motivational factors and friendship characteristics.

This study examined motivation (prosocial goals), individual characteristics (sex, ethnicity, and grade), and friendship characteristics (affective quality, interaction frequency, and friendship stability) in relation to middle adolescents' prosocial behavior over time. Ninth- and 10th-grade students (N = 208) attending a suburban, mid-Atlantic public high school and having at least 1 reciprocated friendship were followed for 1 year. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that a friend's behavior is related to an individual's prosocial goal pursuit, which in turn, is related to an individual's prosocial behavior. Further, the affective quality of a friendship and the frequency with which friends interact moderate relations of a friend's prosocial behavior to an individual's prosocial goal pursuit.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1991

Small group therapy and preadolescent same-sex friendship.

On the rationale that group psychotherapy focuses on interaction processes in close relationships, our study sought to investigate the hypothesis that small group therapy would be effective in enhancing intimate friendship in a dyadic relationship. The study group consisted of 102 elementary school students who had been referred for counseling help. Matched by age, sex, and similarity of problem, each pair of students was divided into an experimental group (N = 55) and a control group (N = 47). The experimental group contained eight small treatment groups and the control group contained seven matching small groups, leaving one special education group with no control. The results support our hypothesis that group psychotherapy positively affects intimate friendship of girls and boys. They further suggest the boys' need for such an experience, since without it they markedly deteriorate in intimate friendship. Implications for the group leader are derived from the correlations between gains in intimate friendship and group intimacy.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1994

Group counseling/psychotherapy as a school intervention to enhance close friendships in preadolescence.

This article recognizes the development of a close same-sex friendship as a developmental task, distinguishable from general successful peer relations. It is argued that a close friendship includes the component of relational competence, which is effectively developed in interactional group psychotherapy and therefore may be a viable method to promote intimate friendships in preadolescence. The rationale for linking growth in intimate friendship with group psychotherapy is provided and supported with illustrations of the therapeutic process as well as with research data.

Counseling↗
PubMed2000

Beyond intimacy: conceptualizing sex differences in same-sex friendships.

This study was designed to replicate and extend prior findings that same-sex friendships of women and men are equally important but that women's friendships are more intimate. A group of adolescents and a group of adults were asked to complete an anonymous questionnaire regarding the quality of their close friendships, the degree to which they would support a close friend in times of difficulty, and the degree to which they would celebrate with a friend in times of success. Results demonstrated that both females and males saw and spoke with their close friends and were equally willing to confront and trust their close friends. Females, however, reported more desire to spend time with a close friend in times of difficulty and to celebrate with a close friend who had just experienced a positive event. Results are discussed in terms of the differing functions of women's and men's same-sex friendships and women's greater general interest in and attention to transitions in the lives of other individuals.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

The relationship between team friendships and burnout among residential counselors.

The relationship between team friendships and burnout was investigated. The participants were counselors from 16 work teams in a short-term residential facility for emotionally disturbed children and adolescents that was located in the United States. The burnout dimensions were lack of personal accomplishment, emotional exhaustion, and depersonalization (Maslach & Jackson, 1986). Reciprocal nominations between team members were used as a measure of team friendships. Friendship between members of the same team was positively related to personal accomplishment and inversely related to emotional exhaustion. The frequency of three aspects of team friendships was also examined: personal discussions, work discussions, and having fun. Having fun with a team friend was positively related to personal accomplishment, and having work discussions with a team friend was inversely related to depersonalization. The women reported more frequent contact with team friends than the men did.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1986

Equity considerations in the friendships of older adults.

This study examined patterns of exchange between 110 older adults and their friends. Using equity theory as the conceptual base, the amount and type of distress reported in the overall friend relationship, the helping aspect of the friendship, and the affective component of the relationship by those individuals in equitable versus inequitable friendships were examined. The results support the postulate of equity theory that individuals who perceived their relationship to be equitable express less distress with all aspects of their friendships than those who perceived their friendships as inequitable. The type of distress reported by respondents in the inequitable group, however, was contrary to the propositions of equity theory.

Aged↗
PubMed1993

Same-gender and cross-gender friendships among the frail elderly.

In this article, both the same-gender and cross-gender friendships of a small group (N = 22) of elderly Social Service Department clients in England are described, largely in qualitative terms. The paper raises issues about the importance of cross-gender friendships to the housebound, about gender differentiation within friendships, and about the different characteristics of the two kinds of friendships--ideas that need to be tested in larger, more representative studies.

Aged↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Children's strategies and goals in response to help-giving and help-seeking tasks within a friendship.

The present research tested whether children's responses to help-giving and help-seeking friendship tasks predicted how many friends they had and the quality of their best friendship. Fifth-grade children (N=511; typically 10 or 11 years old) responded to vignettes in which they could either give help to a friend or seek help from a friend. Children's strategies and goals in both contexts were significantly correlated with the number of friends children had. Responses in the help-giving context but not in the help-seeking context were significantly associated with friendship quality. Although gender differences in strategies and goals were found, strategies and goals were related to the number of friends and friendship quality for both boys and girls.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2004

Effects of direct and indirect cross-group friendships on judgments of Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland: the mediating role of an anxiety-reduction mechanism.

Recent evidence suggests that both direct and indirect friendship with outgroup members (knowledge of ingroup members' friendship with outgroup members) can reduce prejudice toward the outgroup. Two surveys of cross-community relationships in Northern Ireland, using a student sample (N = 341) and a representative sample of the general population (N = 735), tested whether (a) direct and indirect friendships had generalized effects on both prejudice and perceived outgroup variability and (b) reduced anxiety about future encounters with outgroup members mediated such relationships. Structural equation modeling confirmed that, in both samples, direct and indirect cross-group friendships between Catholics and Protestants were associated with reduced prejudice toward the religious outgroup and increased perceived outgroup variability, via an anxiety-reduction mechanism. It is argued that emerging generalization hypotheses help to integrate both cognition and affect and interpersonal and intergroup approaches to contact.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1990

The friendships and recent life events of anxious and depressed school-age children.

The number of moderate to severe undesirable life events and the quality of friendships were compared between a consecutive series of 100 children aged 7-16 years with emotional disorders and a series of community controls matched for age, sex, and social class. Undesirable events and friendship difficulties exerted independent direct effects of similar magnitude on the probability of developing emotional disorders; 33% of disturbed children experienced both adversities compared with 6% of controls. An additive interaction was found for the two factors. The results were uninfluenced by the sex or pubertal status of the subjects. There appears to be no greater probability of being anxious rather than depressed in the presence of life events, alone or in combinations with friendship difficulties. Recent undesirable life events and friendship difficulties arise through independent social pathways and may exert their effects through different psychological mechanisms.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Older women's organization of friendship support networks: an African American-white American comparison.

Research of friendship in older people's lives has recently extended to examine the impact of social structural factors. This study compared the friendship support networks of a small sample of older African and White American women for influences of ethnicity. The comparison used a matched-pair sample which controlled for age, marital status, residence type, and disability. Examination of data from the women's diagrams and descriptions of current informal support networks and friendship life histories indicates ethnic differences in four related areas of friendship network organization: size, composition, recruitment strategies, and opportunities for support exchanges. Implications for research and practice are considered.

Black or African American↗
PubMed1990

Man-boy friendships on trial: on the shift in the discourse on boy love in the early twentieth century.

Ideas on man-boy friendships prevailing in early 20th century Germany are analyzed in this paper. The friendships based on the concept of pedagogical Eros, as propagated by Gustav Wyneken (1875-1964) in his Wickersdorf Free School Community, are presented as an example. Wyneken's conviction in 1921 for acts of vice with minors and the diverse reactions in the homosexual and youth movements and the popular press shed light on the viewpoints then held regarding these friendships. As a result of this confrontation, the Platonic model was superseded by the medico-sexological model which has continued to dominate thought on man-boy friendships up to the present day.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Attachment style and adult love relationships and friendships: a study of a group of women at risk of experiencing relationship difficulties.

This study examines the relationship between attachment style and love relationships and friendships in a group of women (N = 40) known to be at risk of experiencing relationship problems. The association between attachment style and measures of self-esteem and depression were also investigated. Women with a secure attachment style had more positive ratings in the domain of adult love relationships than women with insecure attachment style (avoidant and ambivalent) and difficulties in adult love relationships were found to be particularly related to an avoidant attachment style. Insecure attachment style was also related to having cohabited with a deviant partner. Adult attachment style was not found to be related to ratings of current mood but was significantly related to self-esteem and to ratings of functioning in the domain of adult friendships. In particular, participants with an anxious-ambivalent attachment style had more negative self-esteem than secure participants. Secure participants had more positive ratings in the domain of adult friendships than insecure participants and a moderately significant association was also found between difficulties in the domain of adult friendships and an anxious-ambivalent attachment style. In addition, 20% (N = 8) of the women also reported attachment styles characterized by high levels of avoidance and ambivalence: this group was found to have more pervasive difficulties in their close relationships than women who endorsed a single dominant attachment style.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

The quality of friendships between children with and without learning problems.

The nature and quality of preadolescent friendships between children with and without learning problems due to mental retardation or mild cognitive difficulties were investigated. Based on an assessment of the reciprocal relationship status of 373 children, including 54 with learning problems, 33 friend and 32 acquaintance dyads were identified. Of these dyads, half included a child with learning problems and half consisted of 2 children without learning problems. The dyads were observed performing a play task. Unlike friendships between children without disabilities, friendships between children with and without learning problems were marked by limited collaboration and shared decision-making, a low level of cooperative play and shared laughter, and an asymmetrical, hierarchical division of roles. The importance of advancing beyond the study of the social acceptance of children with learning problems to study the qualitative aspects of their friendships was discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Implicit bias and contact: the role of interethnic friendships.

In 2 studies, the authors examined the role of interethnic friendship with African Americans or Latinos in predicting implicit and explicit biases against these groups. White participants completed the Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K., 1998), several self-report bias measures, and a friendship questionnaire. Participants with close friends who were members of the target group exhibited less implicit prejudice than participants without close friends from the target group. Friendship influenced only 2 of the 7 explicit measures, a result that likely stems from social desirability bias rather than truly non-prejudiced attitudes. Results support the importance of contact, particularly interethnic friendship, in improving intergroup attitudes.

Adult↗