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PubMed1979

Health and environmental impacts of increased generation of coal ash and FGD sludges. Report to the Committee on Health and Ecological Effects of Increased Coal Utilization.

This paper focuses on the incremental impacts of coal ash and flue gas desulfurization (FGD) wastes associated with increased coal usage by utilities and industry under the National Energy Plan (NEP). In the paper, 1985 and 2000 are the assessment points using the baseline data taken from the Annual Environmental Analysis Report (AEAR, September 1977). In each EPA region, the potential mix of disposal options has been broadly estimated and impacts assessed therefrom. In addition, future use of advanced combustion techniques has been taken into account. The quantities of coal ash and FGD wastes depend on ash and sulfur content of the coal, emission regulations, the types of ash collection and FGD systems, and operating conditions of the systems and boiler. The disposal of these wastes is (or will be) subject to Federal and State regulations. The one key legal framework concerning environmental impact on land is the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). RCRA and related Federal and State laws provide a sufficient statutory basis for preventing significant adverse health and environmental impacts from coal ash and FGD waste disposal. However, much of the development and implementation of specific regulations lie ahead. FGD wastes and coal ash and FGD wastes are currently disposed of exclusively on land. The most common land disposal methods are inpoundments (ponds) and landfills, although some mine disposal is also practiced. The potential environmental impacts of this disposal are dependent on the characteristics of the disposal site, characteristics of the coal ash and FGD wastes, control method and the degree of control employed. In general, the major potential impacts are ground and surface water contamination and the "degradation" of large quantities of land. However, assuming land is available for disposal of these wastes, control technology exists for environmentally sound disposal. Because of existing increases in coal use, the possibility of significant environmental impacts, both regionally and nationally, exists regardless of whether the NEP scenario develops or not. Existing baseline data indicate that with sound control technology and successful development and implementation of existing regulatory framework, regional scale impacts are likely to be small; however, site-specific impacts could be significant and need to be evaluated on a case-by-case basis. Both Federal and privately-funded programs are developing additional data and information on disposal of FGD sludges and coal ash. Continuation of these programs will provide additional vital information in the future. However, further information in several areas if desirable: further data on levels of radionuclides and trace metals in these wastes: studies on biological impacts of trace metals; and completion of current and planned studies on disposal problems associated with advanced combustion techniques like fluid bed combustion.

Coal↗
PubMed2006

Environmental impacts and costs of energy.

Environmental damage is one of the main justifications for continued efforts to reduce energy consumption and to shift to cleaner sources such as solar energy. In recent years there has been much progress in the analysis of environmental damages, in particular thanks to the ExternE (External Costs of Energy) Project of the European Commission. This article presents a summary of the methodology and key results for the external costs of the major energy technologies. Even though the uncertainties are large, the results provide substantial evidence that the classical air pollutants (particles, No(x), and SO(2)) from fossil fuels impose significant public health costs, comparable to the cost of global warming from CO(2) emissions. The total external costs are relatively low for natural gas (in the range of about 0.5-1 eurocents/kWh for most EU countries), but much higher for coal and lignite (in the range of about 2-6 eurocents/kWh for most EU countries). By contrast, the external costs of nuclear, wind, and photovoltaics are very low. The external costs of hydro are extremely variable from site to site, and the ones of biomass depend strongly on the specific technologies used and can be quite large for combustion.

Conservation of Energy Resources↗
PubMed2005

Environmental impact of adjuvants in crop protection.

The overall performance of chemical and biological plant protection products is enhanced by the use of adjuvants in the formulation (formulation adjuvants) or in the spray tank (spray adjuvants). Both types of adjuvants aim to stabilize the formulation, to improve the efficiency of the active ingredients and to reduce application and environmental risks. As an important part of the formulation, both quantitatively and qualitatively, the environmental impact and toxicology of adjuvants can not always be considered as inert. However, little is known of their impact as part of plant protection products compared with the active substances. Therefore an experimental framework is needed as a tool for a consistent environmental legislation.

Agriculture↗
PubMed2001

Economic and environmental impact of four levels of concentrate supplementation in grazing dairy herds.

Low-cost, pasture-based forage systems are a viable management alternative for small to moderately sized dairy farms in the Northeast United States. A whole farm analysis was conducted to evaluate the potential long-term environmental impact and economic benefit of varying the level of concentrate supplementation on seasonal grazing dairies. A representative dairy farm was simulated with various production strategies over 25 yr of historical Pennsylvania weather using the Dairy Forage System Model. A representative grazing farm (81 ha) was simulated with four levels of daily concentrate supplementation: 1) no supplement, 2) 3 kg of DM/cow in early lactation, 3) 6 kg of DM/cow in early lactation, and 4) 9 kg of DM/cow in early lactation fed daily to the lactating cows to meet annual milk production levels of 5000, 6068, 6968, and 7700 kg/cow, respectively. These farm systems were then compared to an alfalfa- and corn-based confinement system on the same land base where total mixed rations were fed to maintain an annual milk production level of 9000 kg/cow. The five systems were simulated for three scenarios. In the first, total milk sold per farm (625,000 kg) was similar across all systems. In the second, cow numbers were held constant across all systems (100 mature cows), and total milk sold per farm varied. In the third, stocking rate was set so that forage consumed equaled forage production on the farm. Profitability increased as supplementation level increased in the grazing systems, but at a decreasing rate with each successive level of supplementation. At higher levels of supplementation, the grazing dairy farms showed greater profitability than the confinement systems. Economic risk or year-to-year variation also decreased as concentrate supplementation level increased. The grazing systems showed an environmental benefit compared with the confinement systems by decreasing nitrogen leaching losses. Concentrate supplementation of grazing lactating dairy cows provided an increase in profitability and a mixed impact on nutrient balance of the farm.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed2001

The environmental impact of shrimp aquaculture: causes, effects, and mitigating alternatives.

Attracted by the demand for shrimp in the developed countries, shrimp aquaculture has expanded rapidly, mainly in the subtropical and tropical lowlands of America and Asia. This work provides a global review and viewpoint on the environmental impacts of shrimp aquaculture, considering the causes and effects of the siting and operation of shrimp ponds and abandonment of farm facilities. Additionally, mitigating alternatives are discussed. To date, approximately 1-1.5 million ha of coastal lowlands have been converted into shrimp ponds, comprising mainly salt flats, mangrove areas, marshes, and agricultural lands. The impact of shrimp farming of most concern is the destruction of mangroves and salt marshes for pond construction. Compatibility with other users, the presence of buffer zones, maintaining an acceptable balance between mangroves and shrimp pond area, improved pond design, reduction of water exchange, and an improved residence time of water, size and capacity to assimilate effluents of the water body, are examples of ways to mitigate the adverse effects. The use of mangroves and halophytes as biofilters of shrimp pond effluents offers an attractive tool for reducing the impact in those regions where mangrove wetlands and appropriate conditions for halophyte plantations exist. Healthy seed supply, good feed with the use of prophylactic agents (including probiotics), good water quality, and lower stocking densities are examples of actions suggested to control disease in shrimp farming. Finally, in the context of integrated management, research priorities are suggested.

Agrochemicals↗
PubMed2002

Environmental impact assessment of the mining and concentration activities in the Kola Peninsula, Russia by multidate remote sensing.

On the Kola Peninsula, the mining and concentration industry exerts anthropogenic impact on the environment. Tailing dumps cause airborne pollution through dusting, and waterborne pollution due to direct dumping and accidental releases. The objectives were: (1) to analyse multidate satellite images for 1964-1996 to assess the environmental pollution from the mining and concentration activity in the Kola in temporal perspective; (2) to evaluate remote sensing methods for integrated environmental impact assessment. The area of mining and industrial sites steadily expands and amounted to 94 km2 in 1996. The polluted water surface amounted to at least 150 km2 through dumping in 1978 and to 106 km2 in 1986 due to dusting. Thus, the impact from the mining and concentration activity should be reconsidered as more significant than it was officially anticipated. In the past the main mechanism of pollution was direct dumping into the lakes. Currently and in future, airborne pollution after dusting storms will dominate. The effective recultivation of the tailing dumps will be a long-term process. For effective assessment of impacts from the mining and concentration industry, remote sensing methods should be complemented by in-situ measurements, fieldwork, and mathematical modelling.

Air Pollutants↗
PubMed1975

Ambient air pollutant analyses-integral part of an environmental impact study.

Data for the major pollutants; carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, photochemical oxidants, suspended particulates, and total hydrocarbons, have been presented. In addition, lead analysis and a justification for no sulfur oxides data are also discussed. This study was an integral part of an Environmental Impact Study carried out by the Chemistry Department and the Institute of Transportation Studies a Villanova University. Some of the pollutants were found to cause a situation of concern; namely, photochemical oxidants, suspended particulates and nitrogen oxides. On the otherhand, carbon monoxide and total hydrocarbons were found to be well below limits set by the EPA. Although no standards are set for lead in ambient air, the data showed very low concentrations of this pollutant in our particulate samples. Since oxides ofsulfur are more an industrial, rather than transportation, pollutant little relevance could have been found for the type of study performed.

Air Pollution↗
PubMed1989

Environmental impact of used motor oil.

The information concerning the effects of used motor oil on the environment is reviewed. The production and fate of used motor oil are analyzed and the effects on soil and aquatic organisms are described. The combustion of waste crankcase oil, with particular reference to environmental impact, is discussed. The mutagenic and carcinogenic effects of used motor oil are described. Information on the biodegradation of lubricating motor oil is also reviewed. The available information shows that used motor oil is a very dangerous polluting product. As a consequence of its chemical composition, world-wide dispersion and effects on the environment, used motor oil must be considered a serious environmental problem.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Uncertainty and conservatism in assessing environmental impact under paragraph 316(b): lessons from the Hudson River case.

Initially, regulation of cooling water intakes under paragraph 316(b) was extremely conservative due to the rapid increase predicted for generating capacity, and to the uncertainty associated with our knowledge of the effects of entrainment and impingement. The uncertainty arose from four main sources: estimation of direct plant effects; understanding of population regulatory processes; measurement of population parameters; and predictability of future conditions. Over the last quarter-century, the uncertainty from the first three sources has been substantially reduced, and analytical techniques exist to deal with the fourth. In addition, the dire predictions initially made for some water bodies have not been realized, demonstrating that populations can successfully withstand power plant impacts. This reduced uncertainty has resulted in less conservative regulation in some, but not all venues. New York appears to be taking a more conservative approach to cooling water intakes. The conservative approach is not based on regulations, but in a philosophy that power plant mortality is an illegitimate use of the aquatic resources. This philosophy may simplify permitting decisions, but it does not further the development of a science-based definition of adverse environmental impact.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Seed supply for coastal brackishwater shrimp farming: environmental impacts and sustainability.

Globally, shrimp farming has been a significant agro-based economic activity since the early 1970s. Because it offered a huge immediate economic return, shrimp farming showed a booming expansion and soon became a multimillion dollar industry. However, it has been under extreme criticism because of its devastating ecological and socio-economic impacts. Because seed is the primary input, the impact from farming has started from the source of seed supply, so that not only are natural stocks of shrimp seeds now overexploited worldwide but seed collection activities also significantly reduce stocks of other living resources. Although hatcheries were developed as potential alternative and have replaced the natural seed source to a great extent, large-scale hatchery productions provide a potential source of coastal pollution. However, this area is still poorly studied. The present paper provides a review of the environmental impacts of the wild shrimp seed fishery as well as the possibility of environmental degradation from artificial shrimp seed production in hatcheries.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

A field study of environmental impacts at a bleached kraft pulp mill site on the Baltic Sea coast.

The rate of technical development in bleaching of chemical pulp and the upgrading of process control and wastewater treatment systems in the pulp industry have been extremely rapid over the past few years. When assessing the environmental impacts of bleached kraft pulp mill effluents (BKMEs), it is therefore more important than ever to carefully characterize the bleaching process, the composition of the treated effluent, and the degree of exposure of sensitive target organisms in the receiving water body. These requirements have not always been fulfilled in previous reports on biological effects of BKMEs in Scandinavia. This work presents the results of a comprehensive field study of the impacts of a 350,000-tonne kraft mill, bleaching softwood and hardwood pulp in campaigns according to the sequence O(D25,C70+D5)(EOP)D(EP)D. The effluent is treated in an aerated lagoon with a mean retention time of 8-9 days, practically eliminating chlorate and resin acids, and reducing the discharge of adsorbable organic halogen (AOX) to an average of 1 t/day (1.3 and 0.4 kg/ADt for softwood and hardwood, respectively). The treated effluent is discharged through a 1.3-km-long diffuser, at a water depth of 9-12 m, into a well ventilated coastal area, giving a 1000-fold dilution within 3-4 km from the diffuser. The actual exposure of the coastal ecosystem to BKME components was determined by analysis of extractable organic chlorine in suspended solids and of conjugates of chlorophenolics in the bile of feral perch. Despite a major damage to the benthic communities that occurred about 10 years ago, and was due to large chlorate discharges at the time, no direct detrimental effects on benthic flora and fauna could be ascribed to the present BKME discharge. Instead, a clear recovery of the Fucus community, although not yet completed, could be demonstrated. Studies of the composition, abundance and biomass of the fish community, the recruitment and survival of fish fry, and the physiological status of perch, using a set of biomarkers, revealed that even in the most BKME-exposed area, only minor effects were detected. These effects were related to eutrophication/enrichment rather than to the action of toxic substances. The general effect picture, thus, was essentially of a different type than the one recorded in previous studies of mills, which used older technology and less effective process and effluent treatment control, and which were discharging into enclosed, shallow bays of the Baltic Sea.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

A process for evaluating adverse environmental impacts by cooling-water system entrainment at a California power plant.

A study to determine the effects of entrainment by the Diablo Canyon Power Plant (DCPP) was conducted between 1996 and 1999 as required under Section 316(b) of the Clean Water Act. The goal of this study was to present the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Central Coast Regional Water Quality Control Board (CCRWQCB) with results that could be used to determine if any adverse environmental impacts (AEIs) were caused by the operation of the plant's cooling-water intake structure (CWIS). To this end we chose, under guidance of the CCRWQCB and their entrainment technical working group, a unique approach combining three different models for estimating power plant effects: fecundity hindcasting (FH), adult equivalent loss (AEL), and the empirical transport model (ETM). Comparisons of the results from these three approaches provided us a relative measure of confidence in our estimates of effects. A total of 14 target larval fish taxa were assessed as part of the DCPP 316(b). Example results are presented here for the kelp, gopher, and black-and-yellow (KGB) rockfish complex and clinid kelpfish. Estimates of larval entrainment losses for KGB rockfish were in close agreement (FH is approximately equals to 550 adult females per year, AEL is approximately equals to 1,000 adults [male and female] per year, and ETM = larval mortality as high as 5% which could be interpreted as ca. 2,600 1 kg adult fish). The similar results from the three models provided confidence in the estimated effects for this group. Due to lack of life history information needed to parameterize the FH and AEL models, effects on clinid kelpfish could only be assessed using the ETM model. Results from this model plus ancillary information about local populations of adult kelpfish suggest that the CWIS might be causing an AEI in the vicinity of DCPP.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Environmental impacts of Brazil's Tucuruí Dam: unlearned lessons for hydroelectric development in Amazonia.

Brazil's Tucuruí Dam provides valuable lessons for improving decision-making on major public works in Amazonia and elsewhere. Together with social impacts, which were reviewed in a companion paper, the project's environmental costs are substantial. Monetary costs include costs of construction and maintenance and opportunity costs of natural resources (such as timber) and of the money invested by the Brazilian government. Environmental costs include forest loss, leading to both loss of natural ecosystems and to greenhouse gas emissions. Aquatic ecosystems are heavily affected by the blockage of fish migration and by creation of anoxic environments. Decay of vegetation left in the reservoir creates anoxic water that can corrode turbines, as well as producing methane and providing conditions for methylation of mercury. Defoliants were considered for removing forest in the submergence area but plans were aborted amid a public controversy. Another controversy surrounded impacts of defoliants used to prevent regrowth along the transmission line. Mitigation measures included archaeological and faunal salvage and creation of a "gene bank" on an island in the reservoir. Decision-making in the case of Tucuruí was virtually uninfluenced by environmental studies, which were done concurrently with construction. The dam predates Brazil's 1986 requirement of an Environmental Impact Assessment. Despite limitations, research results provide valuable information for future dams. Extensive public-relations use of the research effort and of mitigation measures such as faunal salvage were evident. Decision-making was closely linked to the influence of construction firms, the military, and foreign financial interests in both the construction project and the use of the resulting electrical power (most of which is used for aluminum smelting). Social and environmental costs received virtually no consideration when decisions were made, an outcome facilitated by a curtain of secrecy surrounding many aspects of the project. Despite improvements in Brazil's system of environmental impact assessment since the Tucuruí reservoir was filled in 1984, many essential features of the decision-making system remain unchanged.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Environmental impact of the MV CITA on the foreshore of Porth Hellick, Isles of Scilly.

The grounding of the container feeder vessel MV CITA on Newfoundland Rocks, Isles of Scilly, had an effect on the surrounding biota and benthic environment. Included in the CITA's cargo were five 40 ft containers holding pallets of polyester film used in the production of audio and visual recording tapes. The wreckage presented a minor but potentially chronic source of pollution through the delayed release of polythene film, which was left on the seabed as it was considered insufficiently valuable to warrant salvage. The polythene disintegrated and was washed upon the foreshore of Porth Hellick in minute shreds. The adjacent foreshore and two control sites within the islands were analysed using a 5-strand line and vegetation survey with 10 random quadrats within each line to determine the environmental impact of the polythene.

Atlantic Islands↗
PubMed2005

Anticipated socio-environmental impacts of the proposed Little Darby National Wildlife Refuge in Ohio.

Data were collected during the summer of 2000 from 146 residents living in a rural area located in central Ohio that had been identified as a possible site for a national wildlife refuge. The purpose of the study was to assess anticipated socio-economic and environmental impacts of the proposed refuge on local people and natural ecosystems. A 'vested interests' theoretical model was developed to guide the investigation. The theoretical model posits that attitudes of local people toward externally induced projects are a function of costs and benefits individuals expect to receive as a result of the development action. The theory posits that individuals who expect to receive greater benefits from the refuge will exhibit more favorable attitudes toward the proposed project. Anticipated impacts of the proposed refuge were assessed with a Likert-type attitude scale that was shown to be highly reliable. Variables measuring specific costs and benefits associated with the proposed project were used as predictive variables. Descriptive statistics demonstrated that respondents believed the proposed wildlife refuge would generate more costs than benefits for local residents. Multiple linear regression findings demonstrated that six variables were significant in explaining 65.1% of the variance in the attitudes toward the proposed project. The significant variables were as follows: perceived costs and benefits associated with the proposed project, perceived water quality within the Little Darby Creek at the time of the data collection, age of primary income earner, expected future water quality within the Little Darby Creek, expected impact of farmland transition on the household, and attitude toward private property rights. Study findings consistently support research hypotheses.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Environmental impacts of steel slag reused in road construction: a crystallographic and molecular (XANES) approach.

Basic oxygen furnace (BOF) steel slag is a residue from the basic oxygen converter in steel-making operations, and is partially reused as an aggregate for road constructions. Although BOF slag is an attractive building material, its long-term behaviour and the associated environmental impacts must be taken into account. Indeed BOF slag is mainly composed of calcium, silicon and iron but also contains trace amounts of potential toxic elements, specifically chromium and vanadium, which can be released. The present research focuses (i) on the release of Cr and V during leaching and (ii) on their speciation within the bearing phase. Indeed the mobility and toxicity of heavy metals strongly depend on their speciation. Leaching tests show that only low amounts of Cr, present at relatively high concentration in steel slag, are released while the release of V is significantly high. X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy indicates that Cr is present in the less mobile and less toxic trivalent form and that its speciation does not evolve during leaching. On the contrary, V which is predominantly present in the 4+ oxidation state seems to become oxidized to the pentavalent form (the most toxic form) during leaching.

Chromium↗
PubMed2005

Environmental impact and health risks associated with greywater irrigation: a case study.

There is an increasing trend to use greywater for irrigation in households. This is partly due to the notion that greywater is of better quality than wastewater and therefore does not need extensive treatment beyond addressing public health issues. The aim of the study was to evaluate the environmental impact and health risks associated with the use of greywater for irrigation on a small private farm. Over a three-year period, each of three plots on a farm was irrigated with either freshwater, fertilized water, or greywater. Irrigation water and soil from the plots were analyzed for a wide range of chemical and microbial variables. Results suggest that greywater may be of similar quality to wastewater in several parameters such as BOD and faecal coliforms. For some other variables such as boron and surfactants, greywater may even be of worse quality than wastewater. Long-term irrigation of arid loess soil with greywater may result in accumulation of salts, surfactants and boron in the soil, causing changes in soil properties and toxicity to plants. Faecal coliforms did not survive in the soil. Treating greywater before using it for irrigation is recommended, even in places where this is not a requirement.

Agriculture↗
PubMed1990

[Application and environmental impact of the biocontrol agent--Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis for vector control].

In 1976, Goldberg and Margalit found a potent isolate of Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis, which has great mosquitocidal activity and was commercialized within 5 years in the USA. It is now the only bio-control agent on the market for vector control worldwide. Because of concerns about environmental pollution and ecological preservation, vector control can no longer be solely dependent on the use of chemicals. It appears that the best strategy is to be integrated with biological control. When considering the value and future progress of BTI, it is important to evaluate applicability based on (1) production technology and economic considerations (2) standardization and quality control, and (3) field realization and environmental impacts. Finally, government policy and regulation limitations are the key factors which influence the availability of BTI in the vector control program.

Animals↗