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PubMed1997

Perceptual differences in infant cries revealed by modifications of acoustic features.

Previous studies of infant cry acoustics and their perceptual significance have remained inconclusive as to the graded nature of cry production and perception and to the exact role and importance of particular acoustic features. In this study, a set of infant cries were digitally analyzed and resynthesized to form natural-sounding cries with varying fundamental frequency (F0), degrees of jitter (period to period variations in F0), and rise time (time for F0 to reach its maximum value). In a perceptual rating task, higher-F0 cries as well as cries with larger amounts of jitter tended to be given more negative ratings than were lower-F0 cries and cries with less jitter, respectively. The perceptual ratings of the rise time manipulations were inconclusive. This study demonstrated a perceptual effect of F0 and jitter independently of other parameters, consistent with current notions of infant cry gradedness. It was also shown that digital signal processing techniques can be fruitfully applied to infant cry research.

Acoustics↗
PubMed2005

Does crying turn tympanic membranes red?

The diagnosis of acute otitis media is based on several clinical factors. One of these factors is the color of the tympanic membrane (TM). Crying can cause flushing and hyperemia of the face. The purpose of this study is to determine whether crying affects the color of tympanic membranes. Infants and toddlers (age 30 months or less) evaluated in an outpatient clinic or primary care pediatrician's office for routine well-baby checks who received at least 2 parenteral immunizations were enrolled on a convenience basis. Ill children were excluded. The initial physician assessed crying and TM color/visibility. Following immunizations, a second physician assessed crying and the TM color/visibility. Color differences were stratified by the degree of crying. One hundred twenty-one study subjects received 2-5 parenteral immunizations. TM colors were most often in the pink range or less. Only 2 TMs were assessed as light red and none were assessed as red. Twenty-eight percent of the TMs with greater crying on the second exam were noted to be redder on the second exam compared to the first exam versus 11% for the comparison group (p=0.0007); 19% of the TMs with greater crying on the second exam were noted to be redder by 2 or more increment levels compared to the first exam versus 5% for the comparison group (p=0.0004); 31% of the TMs with greater crying on the second exam at the 3+ and 4+ level were noted to be redder on the second exam compared to the first exam versus 14% for the comparison group (p=0.003). Our data indicate that, in some instances, crying can result in an increase in pinkness of the TM. Crying in well children does not result in a red tympanic membrane.

Child, Preschool↗
PubMed2003

Cry features reflect pain intensity in term newborns: an alarm threshold.

The purpose of this study was to assess differences in sound spectra of crying of term newborns in relation to different pain levels. Fifty-seven consecutively born neonates were evaluated during heel-prick performed with different analgesic techniques. Crying was recorded and frequency spectrograms analyzed. A pain score on the DAN (Douleur Aiguë du Nouveau-né) scale was assigned to each baby after the sampling. Three features were considered and correlated with the corresponding DAN scores: 1) whole spectral form; 2) the fundamental frequency of the first cry emitted (F0); and 3) root mean square sound pressure normalized to its maximum. After emission of the first cry, babies with DAN scores >8, but not with DAN scores < or =8 (p < 0.001), showed a pattern ("siren cry") characterized by a sequence of almost identical cries with a period on the order of 1 s. A statistically significant correlation was found between root mean square (r2 = 89%, p < 0.01), F0 (r2 = 32%, p < 0.05), siren cry (r2 = 68.2%, p = 0.02), and DAN score. F0 did not show significant correlation with DAN score in the subset of neonates with DAN scores < or =8 (r2 = 1.4%, p = 0.94), and babies with a DAN score >8 had a significantly higher F0 than those with lower DAN scores (p = 0.016). An alarm threshold exists between high (>8) and low (< or =8) DAN scores: crying has different features in these two groups. When pain exceeds a DAN score of 8, usually a first cry at a high pitch is emitted, followed by the siren cry, with a sound level maintained near its maximum.

Cohort Studies↗
PubMed1987

Cry analysis in infants with Rh haemolytic disease.

The influence of hyperbilirubinaemia on the infants' cries and the feasibility of the use of cry analysis for the early identification of developing kernicterus were studied by analyzing the cries of 100 healthy one-day-old infants and 31 infants with Rh haemolytic disease of the newborn (Rh-HDN) by using sound spectrographic methods. The newborn infants with Rh-HDN were divided into three subgroups according to the findings in a neurological examination: an evident group (10 infants), a transient group (13 infants) and an asymptomatic group (8 infants) and followed up until one year of age. Cry recording and a neurological examination were carried out once for each of the healthy one-day-old infants and twice a day during the first week of life for the infants with Rh-HDN, and thereafter once a day until discharged and at the ages of 1 and 3 months. Additional neurological examinations were performed on the Rh-HDN infants at the ages of 6 and 12 months. Bilirubin determination was carried out in connection with the cry recordings during the first week of life. The effect of blood exchange transfusion on the cry sound was investigated in infants with a bilirubin level above 250 mumol/l (n = 12) and below this level (n = 15) before the procedure. An electroencephalography (EEG) was recorded once during the neonatal period and once during the follow-up. The cries of the healthy infants were used to develop a cry score comprising 16 characteristics (latency, duration of phonation, maximum and minimum pitch of fundamental frequency, occurrence and maximum pitch of shift, glide, melody form, biphonation, furcation, noise concentration, voice quality, double harmonic break, glottal plosives, vibrato and glottal roll), which was then applied to the analysis of the cries of the 31 infants with Rh-HDN. In addition, maximum pitch of fundamental frequency, furcation and combination of biphonation and/or furcation were studied. The cry score and maximum pitch of fundamental frequency increased most obviously in the infants in the evident group as compared with the values after birth in the various subgroups and with the values of the healthy one-day-old infants or the infants in the asymptomatic group day by day. Both parameters also increased in the asymptomatic group between days 2 and 3 as compared with the initial value after birth and with the healthy infants.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Crying↗
PubMed1988

Nursing interval and maternal responsivity: effect on early infant crying.

In industrialized societies, the unique pattern of crying in the first three months is "unexplained" but thought to be due to different biobehavioral factors from later crying behavior. To increase the range of the feeding and caretaking behaviors hypothesized to be relevant determinants of early crying, home observations and diary records were analyzed from samples of two subcultures of American middle-class women (La Leche League and "standard care" mothers; each n = 16) differing primarily in such practices. Both during and after the early crying stage, frequently fed infants cried or fretted less often (8.1 v 15.8 episodes per hour at 2 months of age; 10.7 v 16.6 episodes per hour at 4 months of age), and fewer of them exhibited rhythmic crying behavior (four v 11 at 2 months; eight v 13 at 4 months) during observations. However, only during the early crying period at 2 months were interval between feedings and maternal response latency shown to be independent determinants of cry/fret frequency (overall r2 = .35, P = .01), each factor accounting for approximately half of the explained individual variance. Furthermore, feeding interval was the only variable associated with rhythmic crying behavior at 2 months of age (r2 = .20;P = .01). In similar analyses at 4 months, there were no significant relationships with later crying or fretting. The results suggest that, in the presence of variation in feeding practice greater than that which is typical for our society, feeding interval may be a significant factor in early (but not later) crying behavior; furthermore, this effect is independent of and additive to the soothing effect of short response latency.

Breast Feeding↗
PubMed1986

Increased carrying reduces infant crying: a randomized controlled trial.

The crying pattern of normal infants in industrialized societies is characterized by an overall increase until 6 weeks of age followed by a decline until 4 months of age with a preponderance of evening crying. We hypothesized that this "normal" crying could be reduced by supplemental carrying, that is, increased carrying throughout the day in addition to that which occurs during feeding and in response to crying. In a randomized controlled trial, 99 mother-infant pairs were assigned to an increased carrying or control group. At the time of peak crying (6 weeks of age), infants who received supplemental carrying cried and fussed 43% less (1.23 v 2.16 h/d) overall, and 51% less (0.63 v 1.28 hours) during the evening hours (4 PM to midnight). Similar but smaller decreases occurred at 4, 8, and 12 weeks of age. Decreased crying and fussing were associated with increased contentment and feeding frequency but no change in feeding duration or sleep. We conclude that supplemental carrying modifies "normal" crying by reducing the duration and altering the typical pattern of crying and fussing in the first 3 months of life. The relative lack of carrying in our society may predispose to crying and colic in normal infants.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Analysis of sequential immunoglobulin E-binding epitope of Japanese cedar pollen allergen (Cry j 2) in humans, monkeys and mice.

BACKGROUND: Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica; CJ) pollinosis has been reported to occur naturally in Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata) as well as in humans. Most human patients and monkeys with pollinosis have specific IgE for Cry j 2, a major allergen of CJ pollen. OBJECTIVE: The main purpose of this study was to identify IgE B cell epitopes of Cry j 2 using a synthetic peptide in humans, monkeys and mice. METHODS: We synthesized 38 overlapping peptides that span the entire length of Cry j 2. We examined the B cell epitopes of Cry j 2 that are recognized by IgE in the sera of human patients and monkeys with pollinosis and immunized mice using synthetic peptides of Cry j 2. We also examined the reaction of Cry j 2-specific mouse monoclonal IgG antibodies to the peptides. Furthermore, we conducted a histamine release assay with leucocytes from a pollinosis patient using human serum albumin (HSA) conjugated with the peptides as a B cell epitope. RESULTS: We found that 16 of the 20 pollinosis patients who had specific IgE to Cry j 2 also exhibited IgE reaction with some Cry j 2 peptides. Of these 16 patients, 10 exhibited IgE reaction with Cry j 2 peptide no. 13 (121GQCKWVNGREICNDRDRPTA140). Five of the seven monkeys with CJ pollinosis exhibited a reaction with peptide no. 13. Furthermore, IgE in mice immunized with Cry j 2 and two mouse monoclonal IgG antibodies reacted with peptide no. 13. Peptide no. 13-conjugated HSA showed the release of histamine from basophils. Furthermore, to determine the minimum epitope in peptide no. 13, we conducted an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay inhibition test. The core of the epitope in humans, monkeys and mice was 124KWVNGREI131. CONCLUSION: We found that 124KWVNGREI131 is an important B cell epitope recognized by IgE in humans, monkeys and mice.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Inhibition of immunoglobulin E response to Japanese cedar pollen allergen (Cry j 1) in mice by DNA immunization: different outcomes dependent on the plasmid DNA inoculation method.

To develop a new immunotherapy for Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica; CJ) pollinosis, we evaluated the use of DNA immunization by inoculating mice with plasmid DNA encoding Cry j 1 as a CJ pollen major allergen (pCACJ1). Repeated intramuscular (i.m.) inoculation of BALB/c mice with pCACJ1 produced anti-Cry j 1 antibody responses, which were predominately of the immunoglobulin G2a (IgG2a) type. Furthermore, this inoculation suppressed immunoglobulin E (IgE) and IgG1 antibody responses to subsequent alum-precipitated Cry j 1 injections. Splenic T cells isolated from mice inoculated with pCACJ1 i.m. secreted interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma), but not interleukin (IL)-4, in vitro upon stimulation with Cry j 1 as well as with p277-288, a peptide corresponding to the T-cell epitope of Cry j 1. In contrast, inoculation of BALB/c mice with pCACJ1 by gene gun injection caused response predominantly of the IgG1 type, and enhanced production of anti-Cry j 1 IgE antibodies to subsequent alum-precipitated Cry j 1 injections. Splenic T cells isolated from pCACJ1-innoculated mice by gene gun injection secreted both IFN-gamma and IL-4 in vitro, upon stimulation with Cry j 1 as well as with p277-288. These findings suggest that i.m. inoculation with pCACJ1 effectively elicits Cry j 1-specific T helper 1 (Th1)-type immune responses, resulting in inhibition of the IgE response to Cry j 1.

Allergens↗
PubMed2004

Cry j 1 isoforms derived from Cryptomeria japonica trees have different binding properties to monoclonal antibodies.

BACKGROUND: We identified five Cryptomeria japonica trees producing Cry j 1 isoforms that cannot be detected in a sandwich ELISA using two monoclonal antibodies, J1B01 and J1B07, suggesting that the binding affinity of these isoforms for both monoclonal antibodies is low. OBJECTIVES: The binding properties of the Cry j 1 isoforms produced by five trees to J1B07 and J1B01 were examined. The complementary DNA (cDNA) sequences of the Cry j 1 isoforms were also determined. METHODS: To clarify the binding properties of these Cry j 1 isoforms to J1B01 and J1B07, Cry j 1 was quantified in pollen samples collected from each of the five trees, by sandwich ELISAs using polyclonal antibodies and either J1B01 or J1B07. The cDNA sequences of isoforms with different binding properties were determined. To test the assumption that amino acid substitutions affect the binding affinities of Cry j 1 isoforms for monoclonal antibodies, cleaved amplified polymorphic sequences (CAPS) markers representing the putative polymorphisms were used to analyse additional trees. RESULTS: Four of the five trees produced Cry j 1 isoforms with extremely low binding affinity for J1B07, whereas the other tree produced two different isoforms with low binding affinity for either J1B01 or J1B07. Cry j 1-encoding cDNA sequences for one of the four trees and for the exceptional fifth tree indicate that amino acid substitutions at positions 55 and 352 in mature Cry j 1 affect its binding to J1B01 and J1B07, respectively. This was supported by the results of CAPS analysis. CONCLUSION: The existence of Cry j 1 isoforms with low binding affinity for either J1B01 or J1B07 was established. Furthermore, a single amino acid substitution is involved in this difference in binding affinity for each monoclonal antibody.

Allergens↗
PubMed1990

Verbal and behavioral responsiveness to the cries of atypical infants.

A total of 176 subjects (53 male students, 65 female students, and 58 mothers) were exposed to 1 of 6 types of infant cries coming from an adjacent room while their behavioral and affective responses were observed. The cries were the pain cries of 2 normal newborns, 1 infant with maladie du cri du chat, 1 with Down syndrome, 1 asphyxiated infant with brain damage, and one asphyxiated infant without brain damage. Subsequently the subjects rated the overhead cry on a series of affective, attributional, and perceptual dimensions. The results indicated that the 6 cries differentially affected the subjects' affective, self-reported, and behavioral responses, as well as their tendency to report not hearing the cry. In general, the findings suggested that the highest- pitched cries (those of the asphyxiated infants), in comparison to the lowest-pitched cries (those of the normal and Down infants), elicited less optimal responses from the listeners.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Maternal ratings of infant intensity and distractibility: relationship with crying duration in the second month of life.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the relationship between infant temperament characteristics assessed at 4 weeks of age and the duration of infant crying and fussing during the second month of life. DESIGN: Families were enrolled in this prospective study during prenatal classes, and 60 infants completed the study. Temperament was assessed when the infant was 4 weeks of age using the Early Infancy Temperament Questionnaire, and crying and fussing was assessed on 16 days during the second month of life using a parent-completed infant behavior diary. RESULTS: Ratings of the total duration of infant crying and fussing correlated significantly with the sum score on the temperament questionnaire (r = 0.36; P =.005). A longer duration of crying and fussing was associated with infants with high intensity (r = 0.43; P =.001) and low distractibility (r = 0.37; P =.003). CONCLUSIONS: The finding that mothers rating their infants as having high intensity and low distractibility is associated with increased crying duration supports a growing body of literature suggesting that infants with high levels of crying are more reactive to sensory stimuli and harder to soothe than those who cry less. Physicians counseling parents of infants with persistent crying should recognize the infant characteristics associated with increased crying.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

Psychophysiological and perceptual responses to infant cries varying in pitch: comparison of adults with low and high scores on the Child Abuse Potential Inventory.

Based on their scores on the Child Abuse Potential (CAP) Inventory, 30 nonparent adults were classified as either having high CAP scores (n = 15) or low CAP scores (n = 15). Subjects' heart rate and skin conductance were assessed as they listened to audio-taped presentations of four "normal" phonated infant cries and four high-pitched, hyperphonated infant cries. Subjects also rated the cries on several perceptual items. Results showed that both groups of subjects found hyperphonated cries more aversive, distressing, urgent, arousing, and sick than phonated cry sounds. Similarly, all listeners' showed higher skin conductance levels (SCL) in response to hyperphonated than phonated cries. SCL became attenuated over time in response to phonated, but not hyperphonated, cries. Adults in the high-CAP group, showed marginally higher heart rates than low-CAP adults following presentation of all infant cry sounds and responded to phonated cries with marginally higher skin conductance levels than low-CAP adults. The responses of high-CAP nonparent adults are similar to those of parents with histories of physically abusive interactions with their infants.

Adult↗
PubMed1983

Sound spectrographic analysis of pain cry in preterm infants.

Sound spectrographic cry analysis was performed on 302 cries of 48 preterm infants born at 30-37 gestational weeks. The cries were recorded during the first week of life and thereafter weekly until the infants were discharged. The control series comprised 54 cries from 27 fullterm healthy infants. The results showed that the cries of the smallest prematures compared with the controls were shorter, more high-pitched, and included bi-phonation and glide more often. The cry characteristics changed with increasing conceptual age and the older the child the more the cry pattern resembled that of the fullterm. The cries of the preterm infants when they had reached 38 conceptual weeks were similar to those of newly born fullterm infants. The results indicate that the gestational age should be taken into consideration in cry analysis.

Acoustics↗
PubMed2006

Comparison of behavior modification with and without swaddling as interventions for excessive crying.

OBJECTIVE: To test the hypothesis that swaddling is an effective method to reduce crying, we compared a standardized approach of regularity and stimulus reduction with the same approach supplemented with swaddling. STUDY DESIGN: Healthcare nurses coached 398 excessively crying infants up to 12 weeks of age for 3 months. Outcome measurements were crying as measured by Barr's 24-hour diary and parental perception of crying. RESULTS: Crying decreased by 42% in both groups after the first intervention week. Swaddling had no added benefit in the total group. Young infants (1-7 weeks of age at randomization) benefited significantly more from swaddling as shown by a larger decrease of crying over the total intervention period. Older infants (8-13 weeks of age at randomization) showed a significantly greater decrease in crying when offered the standardized approach without swaddling. The actual difference in crying time was 10 minutes. CONCLUSION: For older babies, swaddling did not bring any benefit when added to regularity and stimuli reduction in baby care, although swaddling was a beneficial supplementation in excessively crying infants <8 weeks of age.

Crying↗
PubMed1994

Perceptual responses to infant crying after EEG biofeedback assisted stress management training: implications for physical child abuse.

The adult's perception of infant crying determines whether it is a source of stress and may be an antecedent to physical child abuse. The study had clients listen to infant crying and used stress management training to change their perceived arousal, anxiety, and evaluation of the crying. Fifteen nonparental female clients were randomly assigned to three groups who either had pretraining without stress, pretraining while listening to infant crying, or listened to yoked infant crying without pretraining. During the second stage all clients had stress management training while listening to infant crying. The clients' perceived anxiety and arousal elicited by crying were significantly diminished after stress management training and anxiety measures were strongly correlated with both perceived arousal and the clients' evaluation of infant crying. Although this is the first experiment applying biofeedback assisted stress management training to the perceptual responses and physiological arousal associated with infant crying, these results with inexperienced clients have implications for the prevention and treatment of parental stress and should encourage further research treating physical child abuse as a stress-related disorder.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Development of the vocal fundamental frequency of spontaneous cries during the first 3 months.

Studies in the field of cry diagnosis have concentrated on the fundamental frequency (F(0)) and related parameters as suitable predictors for an at-risk status of the infant for a CNS dysfunction, mostly reflected in an increased F(0). The high variability of F(0) in infant cries is a limiting factor to develop cry analysis as a non-invasive tool for early diagnosis. As only a few longitudinal studies were carried out, our case study wants to contribute to provide developmental data on fundamental frequency of infant cries with a considerable higher time resolution (shorter recording interval). The fundamental frequency of spontaneous cries of one male infant was analyzed using KAY-CSL 4300 for its daily characteristics during the first 3 months of life. This dense sampling interval (daily recordings) enabled the description of the range of temporary changes of the fundamental frequency during the observation period. The mean fundamental frequency values of cries uttered at single days and of the cries of successive days were relatively variable. In contrast to former studies, no significant decreasing or increasing trend of the mean fundamental frequency of all analyzed cries was found through the first 3 months of life. Only cries shorter than 0.8 s showed an increasing developmental trend of the mean F(0).

Acoustics↗
PubMed1999

Acoustic examination of preterm and full-term infant cries: the long-time average spectrum.

The acoustic characteristics of crying behavior displayed in 2 groups of newborn infants are reported. The crying episodes of 10 full-term and 10 preterm infants were audio recorded and analyzed with regard to the long-time average spectrum (LTAS) characteristics. An LTAS display was created for each infant's non-partitioned crying episode, as well as for 3 equidurational partitions of the crying episode. Measures of first spectral peak, mean spectral energy, and spectral tilt were revealing of differences between full-term and preterm infants' non-partitioned crying episodes. In addition, the full-term infants demonstrated significant changes in their crying behavior across partitions, whereas the preterm infants changed little across the crying episode. Discussion focuses on possible differences between full-term and preterm infants in their neurophysiological maturity, and the subsequent impact on their speech development. The importance of examining entire crying episodes when evaluating the crying behavior of infants is also discussed.

Anthropometry↗
PubMed1996

Cry threshold predicts regulatory disorder in newborn infants.

Studied the autonomic regulation of 37 infants with a typical cry threshold and 17 infants with a high cry threshold (typical of problems in nervous system function). Infants with a high cry threshold had a longer latency to cry, a shorter first cry sound, and a shorter overall bout of crying. Spectrum analysis of 2 hours of heart rate variability showed that a high cry threshold was predictive of fewer reliable rhythms and a lower power of the basic 40-min rhythm in heart rate. High cry threshold infants also showed fewer startles and changes in behavioral state. Results suggest a high cry threshold predicts disrupted autonomic regulation and poor coordination among rhythmic systems affecting cardiac activity.

Autonomic Nervous System Diseases↗