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PubMed2002

Northern bobwhite and lead shot deposition in an upland habitat.

We estimated total lead shotshell pellets expended, resultant pellet availability near soil surface, and the frequency of pellet ingestion by northern bobwhites ( Colinus virginianus) attributable to nearly a quarter century of bobwhite hunting on a 202-ha upland habitat at Tall Timbers Research Station, Leon County, Florida. A total of 7776 shots were fired, resulting in the expenditure of approximately 4.5 million pellets (approximately 22519/ha). Sixteen of 235 (6.8%) soil samples collected in 1989 and 1992 contained one or two pellets. Soil samples indicated that approximately 7800 pellets/ha (about 35% of the projected 24-year deposition) were within 2.54 cm of the soil surface. Pellet ingestion by bobwhites was evaluated by examining 241 gizzards collected from 1989-92. Three bobwhites (1.3%) had ingested pellets ( x = 1.3 pellets). No instances of suspected lead poisoning were noted in bobwhites over the 24-year period. Sport hunting of wild bobwhite populations on upland habitats appears to produce a low potential for lead poisoning compared to lead deposition in association with waterfowl and dove hunting.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Pharmacokinetics and acute lethality of perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) to juvenile mallard and northern bobwhite.

Ten-day-old mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) and northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) were fed perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) in their diet for 5 days. The birds were then observed for 3 days while being given uncontaminated feed, and half of the birds were sacrificed on Day 8 of the trial. The remaining birds were maintained for an additional two weeks prior to being euthanized on Day 22 of the trial. Birds were assessed for growth, rate of feed consumption, behavior, physical injury, mortality, and gross abnormalities. Liver weight and concentrations of PFOS in blood serum and liver were also assessed. Based on the average daily intake (ADI) of PFOS calculated over the 5-day exposure period, the LD50 for juvenile mallards was determined to be 150 mg PFOS/kg body weight (bw)/day, equivalent to a total cumulative dose of 750 mg PFOS/kg bw calculated over a 5-day period. For juvenile quail, the LD50 based on the ADI was 61 mg PFOS/kg bw/day, equivalent to a total cumulative dose of 305 mg PFOS/kg bw. Reductions in weight gain and body weight were observed in quail from the 141 mg PFOS/kg treatment, but these measures returned to control levels by Day 22. The no-mortality dietary treatments were 70.3 and 141 mg PFOS/kg feed for quail and mallards, respectively. Both mallards and quail accumulated PFOS in blood serum and liver in a dose-dependent manner. The half-lives of PFOS in mallard blood serum and liver were estimated to be 6.86 and 17.5 days, respectively. In quail, the half-life of PFOS in liver was estimated to be 12.8 days, while the half-life of PFOS in quail blood serum could not be estimated. Concentrations of PFOS in juvenile mallard and quail liver associated with mortality are at least 50-fold greater than the single maximum PFOS concentration that has been measured in livers of avian wildlife.

Alkanesulfonic Acids↗
PubMed2001

Nonlethal method for forensic evaluation of aldicarb exposure in wildlife.

Forensic evaluation of aldicarb exposure is difficult due to the rapid hydrolysis and oxidation of the parent compound. Oxidation products-aldicarb sulfoxide and aldicarb sulfone-are commonly analyzed, but hydrolytic products-aldicarb nitrile, aldicarb nitrile sulfoxide, aldicarb nitrile sulfone-are infrequently analyzed even though they are the primary stable products of aldicarb degradation. Nitrile analyses provide an important avenue to verify aldicarb exposure or aldicarb-induced mortality. Our aproach allows lethal and sublethal exposure assessment. Extraction of samples with acetonitrile:water is followed by chromatographic determination. Sublethal exposure assessment utilizes excreta samples, which is nonlethal and requires holding animals in captivity for 12 h or less. Sublethal exposures of northern bobwhite Colinus virginianus to aldicarb can be identified with greater than 80% confidence for 6 h after dosing. By analyzing GI tracts, lethal exposures of bobwhite to aldicarb can be identified with greater than 90% confidence for 4 days post mortem and with 75% confidence for 8 days post mortem. Sublethal exposures to aldicarb was identified in greater than 80% of Peromyscus maniculatis for 6 h after dosing. Aldicarb and its transformation products were detected for 8 days post mortem in all mice that received aldicarb doses at or above the LD50.

Aldicarb↗
PubMed1998

Subchronic dietary toxicity of strychnine: bobwhite quail are less sensitive than mallard ducks.

Separate, 28-day, subchronic studies of strychnine dietary toxicity were conducted using northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) and mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos). Five groups (five males five females/group) of 29-week-old quail were fed Purina(R) Game Bird Breeder Layena(R) diets containing mean (+/-SD) 484.2 (+/-17.0), 972. 6 (+/-54.0), 1,870.8 (+/-176.1), 3,516.7 (+/-68.0), and 6,083.3 (+/-269.6) microgram/g strychnine; whereas five groups of 27-week-old mallards (five males five females/group) were fed similar diets containing mean (+/-SD) 18.8 (+/-1.3), 91.1 (+/-27.3), 235.0 (+/-33. 8), 484.2 (+/-17.0), and 972.6 (+/-54.0) microgram/g strychnine. Separate "vehicle control" (0.0 microgram/g strychnine) groups (five males, five females/group) were included in each study. Strychnine toxicity was much less pronounced in quail; no observed effect concentrations (NOECs) were 972.6 (+/-54.0) and 91.1 (+/-27.3) microgram/g strychnine for quail and ducks, respectively. Several possible explanations for the species effects are offered, and some practical issues affecting the conduct of long-term, dietary toxicity studies are discussed.

Animals↗
PubMed1984

Toxicity of anticholinesterase insecticides to birds: technical grade versus granular formulations.

The acute toxicities of 13 granular anticholinesterase insecticides were compared with their technical grade active ingredients by administering single oral doses of chemical to adult Northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus) and evaluating resultant LD50 values and dose-response curves. Similar tests with ringed turtledoves (Streptopelia risoria) were conducted with five of the granular formulations to check for interspecific differences. The test chemicals were Amaze 15G (isofenphos), Counter 15G (terbufos), Dasanit 15G (fensulfothion), Diazinon 14G (diazinon), Di-Syston 15G (disulfoton), Dyfonate 20G (fonofos), Furadan 10G (carbofuran), Lorsban 15G (chlorpyrifos), Nemacur 15G (fenamiphos), Parathion 10G (parathion), Tattoo 10G (bendiocarb), Temik 15G (aldicarb), and Thimet 15G (phorate). Information is also presented on dose-response relations and their use in hazard assessment, granule size and hazard, response patterns, and toxic signs. The general conclusions were: (1) The organophosphates (fenamiphos and fensulfothion) and the carbamate (aldicarb) were the most toxic of the insecticides tested. (2) The granular formulation and its technical grade active ingredient were of equivalent toxicity, or the granular was significantly less toxic. (3) The dose-response curve enhances hazard assessment. (4) Ingestion of a single granule of Temik 15G was shown to be life threatening to bobwhite-sized birds, and ingestion of fewer than five granules could be lethal to sparrow-sized birds for Dasanit 15G, Diazinon 14G, Dyfonate 20G, Furadan 15G, and Nemacur 15G. (5) It is therefore suggested that the hazard associated with granular insecticides may be more dependent on which species (cf. size and feeding behavior) inhabit a treated area than on the actual application rate.

Animals↗
PubMed1985

Lethal and behavioral effects of chlordimeform in bobwhite.

The 7-day LC50 of chlordimeform to bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) chicks was 2835 ppm (95% CI = 2169-3705 ppm). Bobwhite chicks fed 1000 ppm (approximately LC4) chlordimeform for 7 days ate less, weighed less, travelled farther from a fright stimulus in an avoidance test, and had significantly more groups make greater than or equal to 10 light beam interruptions in an open-field test at 8 days of age than bobwhite fed 0, 1, 10, or 100 ppm chlordimeform (P less than or equal to 0.05). Groups fed 100 ppm (P less than or equal to 0.05) and 1000 ppm (P = 0.11) for 7 days crossed more often from the shallow to deep side of a visual cliff at 8 days of age than birds fed lesser concentrations of chlordimeform. Bobwhites were retested at 15 days of age, after being fed untreated diets for 7 days following the chlordimeform diets. The 1000 ppm group still travelled greater distances in the avoidance test (P less than or equal to 0.05). But open-field and visual cliff performances were similar to controls and other treatment groups. Chlordimeform concentrations causing behavioral aberrations in bobwhite were appreciably higher than environmental concentrations following field applications of chlordimeform.

Amidines↗
PubMed2006

Culicoides bottimeri as a vector of Haemoproteus lophortyx to quail in California, USA.

Arthropod sampling via periodic direct bird examination and regular light trapping was conducted between June 2000 and October 2002 to survey for potential vectors of Haemoproteus lophortyx to nonnative, captive-raised bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) in northern California, USA. Examination of individual bobwhite quail (from 5 weeks of age through adult, total n=76) was conducted on several dates during the transmission period (June-October). No ectoparasites, including hippoboscid flies (reported as Haemoproteus vectors to wild quail in early literature), were collected from the birds. Trapping with ultraviolet light suction traps near the quail revealed nine species of biting midges (Culicoides spp.). Of these, 94% were C. bottimeri, which was abundant near the birds, and 65% of collected C. bottimeri were engorged with blood. C. bottimeri adult activity began in late-April, slightly before the onset of disease in the quail. Activity peaked between July and late-September, coincident with maximum reported transmission, and adult activity ceased by early-November. Nonengorged C. bottimeri had a parity rate of 43.6% overall, suggesting excellent survival for biological transmission of a pathogen like H. lophortyx. A controlled study was done injecting a macerated slurry of pooled, nonengorged, wild-caught C. bottimeri into the peritoneum of 1-day-old bobwhite quail hatchlings held in insect-proof containers. Blood smears 13-19 days later confirmed H. lophortyx infection in zero controls but all insect-injected quail. Biting midges, especially C. bottimeri, transmit H. lophortyx to captive quail and probably are the dominant vector to native California quail (Callipepla californica) as well.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Aflatoxin contamination in supplemental and wild foods of northern bobwhite.

Esophagi were removed from northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) that were killed by hunters during the 1996-1997 (n = 39) and 1997-1998 (n = 27) hunting seasons in Wheeler County, Texas and Roger Mills County, Oklahoma to determine if they were exposed to aflatoxin (AF) by consuming either wild or supplemental food. Esophagi were segregated into three categories based upon their contents: all wild seeds (n = 11), all supplemental foods (n = 21), and mixed foods (n = 18). Contents of esophagi were then analyzed for AF concentration. Mean (+/- SE) AF concentration (ppb) of wild seeds was 2.44 +/- 0.54; supplemental foods, 0.12 +/- 0.41; and mixed foods, 0.53 +/- 0.40. Wild seeds had higher (P = 0.004) AF concentrations than either the supplemental or mixed categories, although these levels are below those found to cause damage to northern bobwhite. This information suggests that northern bobwhite may consume contaminated food much more often than previously thought.

Aflatoxins↗
PubMed1992

Modification of prenatal auditory experience alters postnatal auditory preferences of bobwhite quail chicks.

This study assessed the effects of altered prenatal auditory experience on bobwhite quail chicks' (Colinus virginianus) species-specific preference for the bobwhite maternal call. Results revealed that when the repetition rate of the embryonic vocalizations normally present in the prenatal environment was altered, the species-typical auditory preference of hatchlings for the maternal call was also altered. Specifically, embryos exposed to embryonic vocalizations with a faster repetition rate than normal subsequently preferred a bobwhite maternal call with a faster repetition rate over one with its normal repetition rate. Bobwhite embryos thus appear able to abstract features of their prenatal auditory environment to other auditory events in the postnatal period. This demonstration of prenatal perceptual learning is in keeping with other recent studies from behavioural embryology, which have also demonstrated that prenatal perceptual experience can influence later responses to species-typical stimulation.

Animals↗
PubMed1979

Effects of dieldrin on operant behavior of bobwhites.

Bobwhites (Colinus virginianus) were trained to peck a green lighted key to receive food. Bird response performance was monitored for 14 days, then birds were dosed with five levels of dieldrin (50 to 300 micrograms every other day) for 42 days while their response performance was monitored. At the end of the 42-day dosage period, mean brain concentrations of dieldrin ranged from 2.6 ppm to 11.8 ppm; lower concentrations associated with lower dosage levels. All dieldrin dosage levels altered cage behavior of bobwhites, dieldrin dosage levels greater than 100 micrograms resulted in slower and less accurate responses by dosed birds during the 42-day trial period.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Factors influencing predictive models for toxicology.

Comparisons of different models to predict toxicity and evaluation of the predictive power of a model are affected by the variability of the data. We assessed this problem by considering experimental toxicity data and chemical descriptors. We evaluated several toxicological end-points (Oncorhynchus mykiss, Daphnia magna, Acceptable Daily Intake, Anas Platyrhynchos, Colinus virginianus and Muridae) in the case of pesticides and also considered the availability of toxicological data. We calculated hundreds of molecular descriptors (divided into constitutional, electrostatic, geometrical, quantum-chemical and topological ones) for the selected compounds using CODESSA, HyperChem and Pallas. Molecular descriptors may vary depending on the conformation of the molecules and on the software used. We evaluated the extent of this variability, and compared it with the variability of the experimental toxicological values.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Food avoidance behavior to dietary octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX) exposure in the northern bobwhite (Colinusvirginianus).

High-melting explosive (HMX; octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine) is a widely utilized explosive component of munitions used by the military. Consequently, production and use through testing and training at military installations has resulted in deposition of HMX in soil. Since these areas are often used by birds, the oral toxicity of HMX exposure to northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) was evaluated. Attempts to determine the acute lethal dose were unsuccessful. Initially, 8 birds (1 male/1 female per dose group) were orally dosed at levels ranging from 125 to 2125 mg HMX/kg body weight. A single death at the midrange resulted in subsequent trials of oral doses up to 10,760 mg/kg body weight. Only a single death occurred at 7173 mg/kg. A subsequent 28-d feeding study was then conducted to evaluate the potential for toxicity resulting from repetitive oral exposures. Northern bobwhite were exposed to concentrations of HMX in feed of either 10000, 1000, 100, or 0 mg/kg. These exposures resulted in a clear concentration-related reduction in feed consumption and body mass. Reductions in egg production in females were correlated with changes in body mass and feed consumption. Other physiological indicators were consistent with a considerable reduction in feed intake. These results suggest that HMX concentration is responsible for intense feed aversion behavior and thus not likely a factor that would appreciably contribute to risk for wild birds at military ranges.

Administration, Oral↗
PubMed1976

Eimeria tenella: host specificity in gallinaceous birds.

Eight species representing 8 genera of gallinaceous birds were used: Alectoris graeca; Colinus virginianus; Coturnix coturnix; Gallus gallus; Meleagris gallopavo; Numidia meleagris; Pavo cristatus; Phasianus colchicus. Three week-old birds were dosed with sporulated oocysts of Eimeria tenella Beltsville strain. At 4, 24, 48, 72, 96, 120 and 144, and 168 hr after inoculation, 1-3 infected birds and uninoculated controls of each species were killed by cardiac exsanguination. Pieces of intestines were fixed and examined for stages of E. tenella as stained paraffin sections or indirect fluorescent antibody preparations. Oocyst counts were made in droppings collected for the first 6 days of the patent period. Sporozoites were found in the lamina propria of some birds of 5 species at 4 hr postinoculation, but no stages were found thereafter except in the breeds of G. gallus and A. gracea. At 144 and 168 hr postinoculation, a few macrogametes were found in the ceca of 2 A. gracea, but no oocysts were found in the feces. No statistical difference was found between the number of oocysts produced/bird in the breeds of G. gallus examined. It is evident from these observations the E. tenella did not complete its life cycle in several close phylogenetic relatives of G. gallus, even though in other studies this parasite was found to complete its life cycle in cell cultures derived from the same birds.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Effect of water restriction during growth and adulthood on kidney morphology of bobwhite quail.

We raised bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) either with unrestricted water (HYD birds) or with restricted water (DEH birds). DEH quail grew more slowly and reached lower adult body mass. Despite this, kidney mass was not different in the two groups. The number of nephrons per kidney, heterogeneity of glomerular sizes, number of medullary cones per kidney, and lengths of medullary cones (equivalent to the lengths of the longest loops of Henle) did not differ between HYD and DEH quail. However, the mass of an individual medullary cone was greater in the DEH birds; this included both hypertrophy and hyperplasia of the epithelia in thick ascending limbs of Henle and hypertrophy without hyperplasia in the collecting ducts. We found no differences among groups in the sizes of tubule cross sections from cortical nephron segments (proximal tubules). Water restriction of HYD birds for 5 days as adults stimulated tubule hypertrophy but not to the same extent as the chronic regimen and with no evidence for hyperplasia. DEH quail given unrestricted water as adults maintained elevated drinking rates for the full week water was available; this rehydration had no effect on sizes of tubule epithelia.

Animals↗
PubMed1981

Brain temperatures in running quail.

Hypothalamic (Tb) and colonic (Tc) temperatures of adult bobwhite (colinus virginianus) were measured simultaneously while the birds were resting and running on a motor-driven treadmill at fixed belt speeds ranging from 0.42 to 0.75 m.s-1 at two air temperatures, room and 30 degrees C. For comparison, Tb and Tc were also recorded simultaneously in resting bobwhite exposed to air temperatures of 30 to 45 degrees C. Hypothalamic temperatures of both environmentally heat-stressed and running bobwhite were consistently below colonic temperatures. The mean magnitude of this body-to-brain temperature difference in birds running at the highest speeds (i.e., with the greatest exercise heat loads) and at a high air temperature (30 degrees C) was similar to that of extremely heat-stressed resting birds [ambient temperature (Ta) = 45 degrees C]. Furthermore, the body-to-brain temperature difference in quail running at 30 degrees C increases with running speed. That these birds running at maximum speeds can maintain their Tb nearly constant while Tc increases suggests enhanced heat transfer in the rete mirabile ophthalmicum, an extracranial site of arteriovenous heat exchange.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Heterosynapsis and axial equalization of the sex chromosomes of the northern bobwhite quail.

The pairing behavior of the Z and W chromosomes in the female northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) was analyzed by electron microscopy of silver-stained synaptonemal complexes (SCs). After autosomal pairing was completed, synapsis of the sex chromosomes initiated at the short-arm end of the W chromosome and one end of the Z chromosome. Synapsis then progressed unidirectionally, producing a sex bivalent in which the entire length of the W axis was paired with an equivalent length of the Z axis. Progressive contraction and asymmetrical twisting of the Z axis ultimately resulted in a fully paired configuration with aligned axial ends. Further contraction of the Z axis reduced the extent of asymmetrical twisting such that only the nonaligned centromeric regions distinguished the SC of the ZW bivalent from SCs of similar-sized autosomes in late-pachytene nuclei. Quantitative analyses indicated that the length of the Z axis shortened significantly during the adjustment process, whereas no significant difference occurred in the length of the W axis. The nonalignment of the centromeric regions during transitional stages of ZW synapsis indicates that direct heterosynapsis of nonhomologous segments, followed by axial equalization of the length inequality, is responsible for the length adjustment during synapsis in the sex chromosomes of the bobwhite quail.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Bacteriolytic activity of selected vertebrate sera for Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto and Borrelia bissettii.

An in vitro assay to evaluate the bacteriolytic activity of the complement pathway was applied to 2 strains of Borrelia bissettii, CO501 and DN127, and compared with that of B. burgdorferi sensu stricto B31. Sera from mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and the Western Fence lizard (Sceloporus occidentalis) were completely borreliacidal for B. burgdorferi and for both strains of B. bissettii. Serum from Bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) was nonlytic for B. burgdorferi and partially lytic for B. bissettii strains, CO-501 and DN127. Serum from a New Zealand White rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) was partially lytic for all 3 strains of Borrelia, whereas serum from white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus) were nonlytic for all 3 Borrelia strains. The spectrum of complement sensitivity of B. bissettii appears to be similar to that of European B. afzelii in that tested rodent serum is not lytic to these 2 genospecies. Interestingly, both B. bissettii and B. afzelii have been found to be closely associated with rodents. Complement sensitivity demonstrated in these experiments may suggest and possibly predict specific reservoir-host associations.

Animals↗
PubMed1978

Toxicological studies with mirex in bobwhite quail.

Bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) received dietary mirex in concentrations of 1, 20 and 40 ppm to investigate reproductive effects of long term exposure to this chemical. Residue analyses of Fo generation breeders indicated that male adipose tissue contained approximately 10 times the mirex level in the diet. Elimination of mirex in females probably was facilitated by egg laying, which reduced mirex buildup in adipose tissue to five times the dietary level. Both sexes were noted to concentrate mirex in fat and breast tissue in direct proportion to the intake of dietary mirex. Eggs collected from Fo generation breeders were not affected deleteriously by mirex as measured by embryo survival to 3 weeks, and thenumber of eggs failing to hatch. Indeed, increased rates of egg fertility and hatchability were associated with higher dietary concentrations. Chick survival data was obtained in Fp and F1 generation hatchlings from hatching through 2 weeks. No chick mortality attributable to pesticide stress was detected in either group of birds. Eggs collected from F1 generation breeders that received 1 ppm were not affected harmfully as measured by embryonation, embryo survival, and hatchability rates. Comparison of residues in wild bobwhites with residues in our experimental findings indicates mirex is apparently not affecting deleteriously reproductive success of wild quail.

Adipose Tissue↗