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PubMed1995

Variation and evolution of mammalian corticospinal somata with special reference to primates.

The morphology of the somata originating the corticospinal tract was examined in 24 species of mammals to identify commonalities and major sources of variation among the different species. Horseradish peroxidase was applied to a hemisection of the spinal cord at the C1-C2 junction. After tetramethylbenzidine processing, the labeled somata throughout the cerebral cortex were plotted and counted. Then, 23 morphological characteristics of the corticospinal somata were examined, including their number, size, and density across the cortical surface. The results show that morphological characteristics of corticospinal somata are closely related to an animal's body, brain, and cerebral cortex size. That is, mammals with large neocortical surfaces tend to have larger as well as more corticospinal somata; mammals with large bodies tend to have corticospinal somata that are less densely distributed. Moreover, the probable increase in the ratio of local noncorticospinal somata to corticospinal somata implies that the evolution of the corticospinal tract was accomplished by an increase in "support" or "server" cells as well as an increase in the size of the tract itself. The results also show that several characteristics are reliably related to an animal's taxonomic classification and hence its ancestry. Comparisons among three mammalian lineages indicate that some characteristics may have changed uniquely in the anthropoid primate lineage, and thus, presumably, in the human lineage. The results suggest that if morphological characteristics of the corticospinal tract important in the evolution of the specialized motor abilities in anthropoid primates are sought, then examination of the role of changes in soma diameter, rostral (motor)/caudal (sensory) ratios of density, concentration, surface density, and volume density may be more instructive than examination of the total number of corticospinal neurons alone.

Animals↗
PubMed1984

Prevalence of antibody to adult T-cell leukemia virus-associated antigens (ATLA) in Japanese monkeys and other non-human primates.

The prevalence of adult T-cell-leukemia virus (ATLV) infection was examined in Japanese monkeys living naturally in various parts of Japan and in other species of non-human primates imported into and kept in Japan. Sera of 2,650 Japanese monkeys from 41 troops throughout Japan were tested. High incidences of anti-ATLV-associated antigen (ATLA)-positive monkeys were found in most troops, not only in the endemic area of human ATL(Southwestern Japan), but also in non-endemic areas. The incidence of sero-positive individuals increased gradually with age, reaching a maximum when the animals became adult, indicating age dependency, like that found by epidemiological studies on humans. Anti-ATLA antibodies were also detected in 90 of 815 sera of imported non-human primates of 33 species other than Japanese monkeys. All the anti-ATLA sero-positive monkeys were Catarrhines (Old World monkeys), mainly macaques of Asian origin. Some sero-positive monkeys were also found among animals of African origin, but no antibody was detected in Prosimians and Platyrrhines (New World monkeys). The clear-cut difference between the geographical distribution of sero-positive simians and that of humans indicates the improbability of direct transmission of ATLV from simians to humans.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1986

Seroepidemiologic survey of captive Old-World primates for antibodies to human and simian retroviruses, and isolation of a lentivirus from sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus atys).

Sera from 526 Old-World monkeys and apes, representing 50 species and 20 genera and living in US zoos and vivaria, were screened for antibodies to HTLV-I, HTLV-III/LAV, and simian-AIDS retrovirus, type I (SRV-I). Sera were screened initially by ELISA, and ELISA-positive sera, as well as ELISA-negative sera from cage contacts, were further tested by Western blotting. A large number of false-positive and a small number of false-negative ELISA sera were identified. Although most true positive reactions were directed to a single retrovirus, a number of individuals from 4 species were positive for more than one retrovirus. Specific seroreactivity to HTLV-I was found in 39/526 (7%) animals of 15 species. True positive reactions to SRV-I were found in 21/516 (4%) animals, including talapoins and 2 species of macaques. Specific serologic reactions to HTLV-III/LAV were detected in 23/526 (4%) monkeys. Many of the HTLV-III/LAV seropositive animals were from one mixed-species zoo exhibit, containing sooty mangabeys, mandrills, Kolb's guenons, and talapoins. A type D virus was isolated from the blood of 3/10 SRV-I antibody-positive Tonkeana macaques, but from none of 11 seropositive talapoins. A lentivirus was isolated from the blood of 4/7 HTLV-III/LAV seropositive sooty mangabeys, but not from seropositive talapoins in the same exhibit or from 2 seropositive colobus from another zoo. The sooty mangabey lentivirus produced generalized lymphadenopathy, leukopenia, and decreased levels of T4 lymphocytes in 2 experimentally infected rhesus macaques.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

Species-dependent antigenicity of the 34-kDa glycoprotein found on the membrane of various primate lymphocytes transformed by human T-cell leukemia virus type-I (HTLV-I) and simian T-cell leukemia virus (STLV-I).

Sixteen monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) against TA34 antigen found on the surface of human T-cell leukemia virus type-I (HTLV-I) infected cells were prepared. These MAbs and one previously prepared anti-TA34 MAb (TAG34) recognized 34-kDa peptide not only in HTLV-I-infected cells, but also in cells infected with simian T-cell leukemia virus (STLV-I), which is analogous in antigenicity and gene structure to HTLV-I. Radioimmuno-precipitation (RIP) tests with the MAbs showed that TA34 antigen had at least 3 overlapping epitope groups. The antigenicities of the TA34 antigens of HTLV-I-infected cells derived from various primates were investigated by immunofluorescence staining using 9 anti-TA34 MAbs. Cells from humans, apes and Old World monkeys reacted with all these antibodies, whereas cells from New World monkeys were stained by most of the antibodies, but little if at all by the remaining 2 (5A8 and TAG34). Similar results were obtained with various primate cells infected with STLV-I. All 17 MAbs used recognized a 22-kDa peptide in HTLV-I-infected cells cultured in the presence of tunicamycin. When incubated with 1% 2-mercaptoethanol at pH 7.2 at 37 degrees C, TA34 antigen lost its reactivity with TAG34, suggesting that the antigen has an intramolecular S-S bond. Twenty sera of adult T-cell leukemia (ATL) patients did not react with TA34 antigen in RIP tests.

Animals↗
PubMed1981

Comparative extraocular muscle blood flow.

This study was designed to quantitatively determined blood flow to the extraocular muscles (EOM) of animals showing a wide range of ocular motility Blood-flow values (ml/minute/gm) for EOM in primates (0.25 +/- 0.03), dogs (0.33 +/- 0.06), sheep (0.12 +/- 0.01), and geese (0.12 +/- 0.04) were determined using the Reference Sample Method with 15 +/- 3 micrometer 103Ru microspheres and complete cardiovascular monitoring. Mammalian EOM blood flow was significantly higher than that determined for other skeletal muscle; however, EOM blood-flow values for sheep were significantly lower than those for primates and dogs. No significant blood-flow differences were found between avian EOM and other skeletal muscle, reflecting the unique avian ocular anatomy. These data indicate that high blood flow is not a general property of EOM and suggest a relationship between functional ocular motility and blood flow.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Sequence and evolution of the blue cone pigment gene in Old and New World primates.

The sequences of the blue cone photopigments in the talapoin monkey (Miopithecus talapoin), an Old World primate, and in the marmoset (Callithrix jacchus), a New World monkey, are presented. Both genes are composed of 5 exons separated by 4 introns. In this respect, they are identical to the human blue gene, and intron sizes are also similar. Based on the level of amino acid identity, both monkey pigments are members of the S branch of pigments. Alignment of these sequences with the human gene requires the insertion/deletion of two separate codons in exon 1. The silent site divergence between these primate blue genes indicates a separation of the Old and New World primate lineages around 43 million years ago.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed1995

HERV-H endogenous retroviruses: presence in the New World branch but amplification in the Old World primate lineage.

The evolutionary origin and age of the HERV-H family of human endogenous retrovirus-like sequences was investigated in this study. HERV-H elements exist in approximately 900 partially deleted copies and 50-100 more intact forms in humans and Old World monkeys. However, their possible presence in more divergent species is unknown. We have isolated a 1.6-kb genomic DNA segment from the New World monkey marmoset that had been PCR amplified using human HERV-H primers. DNA and protein comparisons and database searches indicate that this marmoset clone is more closely related to human HERV-H elements than to any other sequence, indicating that HERV-H-related sequences do exist in New World monkeys. In contrast to the high copy numbers of deleted elements in Old World primates. Southern blot analysis shows that such elements are present in less than 50 copies in two different species of New World monkey. To estimate evolutionary ages of the common deleted form of the element, a selected DNA segment from the pol region was compared from multiple human HERV-H elements. This comparison suggests that many HERV-H elements of the abundant deleted subfamily integrated approximately 30-35 million years ago. Very similar percentage divergence values between 5' and 3' long terminal repeats of individual elements of the deleted subfamily also suggest that these elements are close in age. These results indicate that HERV-H elements first appeared in the germline prior to the New World/Old World divergence over 40 million years ago. Interestingly, they remained in low numbers in the New World branch while a subfamily underwent a major amplification in Old World primates before the time of divergence of hominoids from Old World monkeys.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Human and simian adenoviruses: phylogenetic inferences from analysis of VA RNA genes.

Adenovirus VA RNA genes have primary sequence constraints due to internal promoter regions and a high degree of secondary structure in the RNA product. To determine the relationships between human and simian adenoviruses, the VA RNA genes of several primate adenoviruses were characterized and compared to those sequences already published. Human adenoviruses of subgenera A, B:2, and F have only one VA RNA gene, whereas human adenoviruses of subgenera B:1, C, D, and E have two. The genomes of 12 monkey adenoviruses were found to have only one VA RNA gene, whereas the genomes of six representative chimpanzee adenoviruses were each found to have two VA RNA genes. Phylogenetic analysis of representative VA RNA gene sequences individually, irrespective of their strain of origin or partnering VA RNA gene, gave the following inferences. (1) The single VA RNA genes of human adenovirus subgenera A and F are most closely related to those of monkey adenoviruses. (2) The VA RNAI genes of human adenoviruses in subgenera B:1, D, and E, and also the single VA RNA genes of subgenus B:2 probably diverged from a common ancestral VA RNA gene. (3) This ancestral gene most likely reduplicated to give the precursor of all VA RNAII genes, the evidence for which has been almost totally lost in subgenus B:2 adenoviruses. (4) The two VA RNA genes of human subgenus C adenoviruses are relatively distant from each other phylogenetically. Since the Ad2 and Ad5 VA RNAI genes have a higher identity to the single VA RNA gene of SAV13 (SV36) than to those of any of the other human adenoviruses, these genes may have entered the human subgenus C adenovirus genome by substitution involving recombination with a simian adenovirus. The results of this study suggest that a renewed appraisal of VA RNA function in adenoviruses other than Ad2 and Ad5 may be necessary.

Adenoviruses, Human↗
PubMed1987

Chromosome phylogenies of man, great apes, and Old World monkeys.

The karyotypes of man and of the closely related Pongidae--chimpanzee, gorilla, and orangutan--differ by a small number of well known rearrangements, mainly pericentric inversions and one fusion which reduced the chromosome number from 48 in the Pongidae to 46 in man. Dutrillaux et al. (1973, 1975, 1979) reconstructed the chromosomal phylogeny of the entire primate order. More and more distantly related species were compared thus moving backward in evolution to the common ancestors of the Pongidae, of the Cercopithecoidae, the Catarrhini, the Platyrrhini, the Prosimians, and finally the common ancestor of all primates. Descending the pyramid it becomes possible to assign the rearrangements that occurred in each phylum, and the one that led to man in particular. The main conclusions are that this phylogeny is compatible with the occurrence during evolution of simple chromosome rearrangements--inversions, fusions, reciprocal translocation, acquisition or loss of heterochromatin--and that it is entirely consistent with the known primate phylogeny based on physical morphology and molecular evolution. If heterochromatin is not taken into account, man has in common with the other primates practically all of his chromosomal material as determined by chromosome banding. However, it is arranged differently, according to species, on account of chromosome rearrangements. This interpretation has been confirmed by comparative gene mapping, which established that the same chromosome segments, identified by banding, carry the same genes (Finaz et al., 1973; Human Gene Mapping 8, 1985). A remarkable observation made by Dutrillaux is that different primate phyla seem to have adopted different chromosome rearrangements in the course of evolution: inversions for the Pongidae, Robertsonian fusions for the lemurs, etc. This observation may raise many questions, among which is that of an organized evolution. Also, the breakpoints of chromosomal rearrangements observed during evolution, in human chromosomal diseases, and after ionizing irradiation do not seem to be distributed at random. Chromosomal rearrangements observed in evolution are known to be harmful in humans, leading to complete or partial sterility through abnormal offspring in the heterozygous state but not in the homozygous state. They then become a robust reproductive barrier capable of creating new species, far more powerful than gene mutations advocated by neo-Darwinism. The homozygous state may be achieved especially through inbreeding, which must have played a major role during primate evolution.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Polymorphism, monomorphism, and sequences in conserved microsatellites in primate species.

Dimeric short tandem repeats are a source of highly polymorphic markers in the mammalian genome. Genetic variation at these hypervariable loci is extensively used for linkage analysis, for the identification of individuals, and may be useful for interpopulation and interspecies studies. In this paper, we analyze the variability and the sequences of a segment including three microsatellites, first described in man, in several species of primates (chimpanzee, orangutan, gibbon, and macaque) using the heterologous primers (man primers). This region is located on the human chromosome 6p, near the tumor necrosis factor genes, in the major histocompatibility complex. The fact that these primers work in all species studied indicates that they are conserved throughout the different lineages of the two superfamilies, the Hominoidea and the Cercopithecidea, represented by the macaques. However, the intervening sequence displays intraspecific and interspecific variability. The sites of base substitutions and the insertion/deletion events are not evenly distributed within this region. The data suggest that it is necessary to have a minimal number of repeats to increase the rate of mutation sufficiently to allow the development of polymorphism. In some species, the microsatellites present single base variations which reduce the number of contiguous repeats, thus apparently slowing the rate of additional slippage events. Species with such variations or a low number of repeats are monomorphic. These microsatellite sequences are informative in the comparison of closely related species and reflect the phylogeny of the Old World monkeys, apes, and man.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

The dichotomous size variation of human complement C4 genes is mediated by a novel family of endogenous retroviruses, which also establishes species-specific genomic patterns among Old World primates.

The human complement C4 genes in the HLA exhibit an unusual, dichotomous size polymorphism and a four-gene, modular variation involving novel gene RP, complement C4, steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21), and tenascin-like Gene X (RCCX). The C4 gene size dichotomy is mediated by an endogenous retrovirus, HERV-K(C4). Nearly identical sequences for this retrotransposon are present precisely at the same location in the long C4 genes from the tandem RCCX Module I and Module II. Specific nucleotide substitutions between the long and short C4 genes have been identified and used for diagnosis. Southern blot analyses revealed that HERV-K(C4) is present at more than 30 locations in the human genome, exhibits variations in the population, and its analogs exist in the genomes of Old World primates with species-specific patterns. Evidence of intrachromosomal recombination between the two long terminal repeats of HERV-K(C4) is found near the huntingtin locus on chromosome 4. It is possible that members of HERV-K(C4) are involved in genetic instabilities including the RCCX modules, and in protecting the host genome from retroviral attack through an antisense strategy.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed1994

Investigation of the human Rh blood group system in nonhuman primates and other species with serologic and Southern blot analysis.

To investigate the evolution of the Rh blood-group system in anthropoid apes, New and Old World monkeys, and nonprimate animals, serologic typing of erythrocytes from these species with antibodies specific for the human Rh blood-group antigens was performed. In addition, genomic DNA from these animals was analyzed on Southern blots with a human Rh-specific cDNA. Consistent with earlier reports, serologic results showed that gorilla and chimpanzee erythrocytes had epitopes recognized by human Rh D and c antisera, and gibbon erythrocytes were recognized by the c antisera. Surprisingly, some Old and New World monkeys also expressed a Rh c epitope on their erythrocytes. No erythrocytes from the nonprimate animals reacted specifically with any of the human Rh antisera. Southern blot analysis with a human Rh-specific cDNA probe detected Rh-related sequences in anthropoid apes, all New and Old World monkeys, and in most nonprimate animals tested. Although some Rh-related restriction fragments were conserved across species lines in primates, the Rh locus was more polymorphic in chimpanzees and gorillas than in humans. In addition, restriction fragments segregating with the presence of the D antigen in humans were present in the primate species that expressed the D antigen.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

The effect of midazolam and beta-carboline carboxylic acid ethyl ester on behaviour, steroid hormones and central monoamine metabolites in social groups of talapoin monkeys.

Established social groups of talapoin monkeys show rank-related differences in aggressive, social and sexual behaviours and visual monitoring, as well as in endocrine and monoamine profiles. Here we describe the effects on these variables of an "anxiogenic drug", beta-carboline carboxylic acid ethyl ester (beta-CCE), and an anxiolytic drug (midazolam) given to either dominant or subordinate male talapoins. In dominant animals beta-CCE increased aggression and visual monitoring but reduced sexual behaviour. Treatment of subordinate animals with beta-CCE served only to increase visual monitoring. Conversely, treatment with a non-sedative acute dose of midazolam in dominants reduced aggressive behaviour and increased sexual behaviour, whereas in subordinates no behavioural changes were noted. Significant effects on endocrine and neurochemical variables were not seen with the acute drug treatments employed. Nevertheless, the results show that drugs which modulate anxiety produce status-dependent behavioural effects.

Aggression↗
PubMed1993

Evolution and pathophysiology of the human natural anti-alpha-galactosyl IgG (anti-Gal) antibody.

Anti-Gal is a human natural antibody which interacts specifically with the mammalian carbohydrate structure Gal alpha 1-3Gal beta 1-4GlcNAc-R, termed, the alpha-galactosyl epitope. This antibody constitutes approximately 1% of circulating IgG in human serum and is produced, upon stimulation, by 1% of circulating B lymphocytes. Anti-Gal is also present as IgA antibodies in body secretions such as saliva, milk and colostrum. The antigenic source for the constant production of anti-Gal seems to be the alpha-galactosyl-like epitopes found on many bacteria of the gastrointestinal flora. Whereas anti-Gal is abundant in humans, apes and Old World monkeys, it is absent from New World monkeys, prosimians and nonprimate mammals. The latter group of species produces, however, large amounts of alpha-galactosyl epitopes (> 10(6) epitopes per cell). It is estimated that anti-Gal appeared in ancestral Old World primates less than 28 million years ago, possibly as a result of an evolutionary event which exerted a selective pressure for the suppression of alpha-galactosyl epitopes expression by inactivation of the gene for the enzyme alpha 1,3 galactosyltransferase. This also resulted in the loss of immune tolerance to the alpha-galactosyl epitope and the production of anti-Gal. The physiologic role of this antibody is not clear as yet. It may participate in the protection against gastrointestinal bacteria. In addition it seems to contribute to the removal of normal and pathologically senescent red cells by interacting with the few hundred cryptic alpha-galactosyl epitopes which are exposed de novo in the course of red cell aging, thereby opsonizing these cells for phagocytosis by reticuloendothelial macrophages. The alpha-galactosyl epitope has been found to be aberrantly expressed on human cells and the interaction of anti-Gal with such epitopes may result in autoimmune disease. Preliminary data suggest such a mechanism in Graves' disease. Anti-Gal has been found to interact with therapeutic recombinant proteins expressing alpha-galactosyl epitopes, but so far there is no indication that it affects the half-life in the circulation and the biologic activity. Detection of anti-Gal in the seminal fluid and in the cerebrospinal fluid may serve as a simple means for assessment of damage to the blood-genital tract barrier or the blood-brain barrier. Studies on the interaction of anti-Gal with aberrantly expressed alpha-galactosyl epitopes on human cells may elucidate the possible role of anti-Gal in human autoimmune diseases.

Animals↗
PubMed1987

Antigenic properties of human and animal bloodstains studied by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using various antisera against specific plasma proteins.

Antigenic properties of bloodstains of human and non-human primates as well as other animal bloodstains were investigated by the inhibition ELISA using commercially available anti-human albumin (Alb), alpha 2-macroglobulin (alpha 2-M), fibrinogen, transferrin, and immunoglobulin G. In general, chimpanzee bloodstains showed strong cross-reactions with these antisera, and the extent of the cross-reactions of other animal bloodstains decreased largely with the phylogenic order, i.e., agile gibbon (ape), Old World monkeys (Japanese monkey and hamadryas baboon), New World monkeys (night monkey and tufted capuchin monkey), prosimians (grand galago and ring-tailed lemur) and other animals (rat, cattle, swine, goat, dog, cat, and chicken). Among these antisera, anti-human alpha 2-M showed the weakest cross-reaction with chimpanzee bloodstains, and anti-human Alb showed next.

Animals↗
PubMed1981

Morphology of neurons in the lateral geniculate nucleus of the monkey. A Golgi study.

Rapid Golgi preparations of the lateral geniculate nucleus of old- and new-world monkeys were analysed in an attempt to classify the neuronal types. Four main types are described. The commonest, the multipolar neurons, are found in all laminae. Their somata can be large, medium or small and bear dendrites with sparse spines. Some have a "radiate" dendritic arbor and others have dendrites grouped in "tufts". The next most frequent class is of bipolar neurons with two thick dendrites arising from opposite poles of the soma, which is usually large. Otherwise the dendrites are similar to those of multipolar neurons. Relatively rare is a class of medium-sized neurons with beaded dendrites, found here only in magnocellular laminae. There is a fourth class of small neurons distinguished by fine "axon-like" dendritic processes. They are in all laminae and form two subgroups, one with very long, cylindrical dendrites and few axon-like proceses, the other with shorter dendritic arbors and many axon-like processes. In addition, a class of capsular neurons is found in the circumgeniculate capsule between layer 6 and the pregeniculate nucleus. They are large neurons with "umbrella-like" dendritic arbors sending ramifications into layer 6. The interlaminar zones contain scattered somata of all types except beaded and capsular neurons.

Animals↗