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PubMed1989

The 1990 U.S. census: how good is good enough?

The 1990 US census is likely to be the most accurate in the nation's history, but it may miss 2 or 3 million people, most of them poor and many of them black or Hispanic. Because the population census is the basis for political apportionment and determines the allocation of a growing share of federal funds to localities and public programs, undercoverage is of great concern to cities, states, and the groups most affected. The statistical methods developed to measure the extent of undercounting in the census have become increasingly reliable, but the official census count has never before been adjusted on the basis of these methods. This article describes plans for the 1990 census and examines a growing controversy over adjustment for an undercount.

Americas↗
PubMed1998

When immigrants are not migrants: counting arrivals of the foreign born using the U.S. census.

"This paper compares characteristics of recent immigrant arrivals in the United States using two measures from the decennial U.S. census: the came-to-stay question and the migration question.... Among recent arrivals, defined as those who reported they came to stay in the quinquennium preceding the census, a large number were resident in the United States five years before the census date. Furthermore, the proportion of recent arrivals present in the United States five years before the census increased between 1975-1980 and 1985-1990.... Generally, in both the 1975-1980 and 1985-1990 cohorts, those resident in the United States five years before the census have significantly less schooling and lower incomes than those who were abroad."

Americas↗
PubMed1989

The 1990 World Population and Housing Census Programme.

A population census is the primary source of demographic information for every country. In planning for the 1990 round of censuses, the international community has adopted a number of recommendations for changes for countries and regions to consider in planning for and carrying out their census. In particular, alternatives for the measurement of economic activity have been proposed in order to obtain a more realistic indication of employment and unemployment in countries where the agriculture and informal sectors are important. New recommendations have also been made for the measurement of stocks and flows of international migrants. In each of the major regions, recommendations have been adapted to local concerns. Preparations are being made for technical cooperation in the 190 census round, and a calendar of the census dates in all countries is shown to be nearly complete.

Agriculture↗
PubMed1987

Planning the 1991 census.

This article describes the plans being made by the census offices in the United Kingdom for the 1991 census "particularly for the topic content of the Census, for its geographical base and for the dissemination of results, and how users of census statistics are being consulted about their needs."

Censuses↗
PubMed1986

1981 census evaluation programme in England and Wales.

The program developed to evaluate the coverage and quality of results from the 1981 census of England and Wales is described. "A post-enumeration survey was the main tool used, but for the evaluation of census coverage, this was augmented by a series of demographic checks against statistics from other administrative sources. The main conclusion from the coverage checks was that the census probably missed about 241,000 people net (about half of one per cent of the population) including some 36,000 children aged 0-4. At older ages than this, adults aged 16-44 were more likely to be missed than others and males rather more than females. Students and people out of employment were also more likely to be missed than people in employment. The quality of householders' responses to particular census questions was evaluated in a detailed post-enumeration interview survey. The results of this showed that the questions subject to most response error were those on rooms, various aspects of economic activity and the main means of travel to work."

Age Factors↗
PubMed2003

Sam Greenhouse's years at the Census Bureau and the UNRRA.

Sam Greenhouse joined the Census Bureau as a clerk at an interesting time period for the agency. The first use of sampling in the decennial census occurred in 1940. There was a major expansion of the amount of data collected. The organization of the Census Bureau underwent radical changes, including the growth of the Population Division of which Greenhouse was a part, and the Office of Statistical Assistant was established. After the 1940 census Greenhouse was also part of a new intercensal program which became the forerunner of today's Current Population Survey, and was on hand for the transition of the physical location of the agency from Washington D.C. to Suitland, Maryland. After America's entry into World War II, Sam Greenhouse left the Census Bureau and worked with the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), designed to manage the support and eventual repatriation of refugees who would come under Allied control at the war's end. Published in 2003 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Biometry↗
PubMed2000

[History of 1906 census of handicapped patients].

The census of cripples ("Reichskrüppelzählung") in the German Reich plays a central role in the development of orthopaedic surgery. Local censuses conducted by protestant ministers had already pointed out the great number of disabled children without appropriate care. It was the achievement of Konrad Biesalski, who was an orthopaedic surgeon, and of Eduard Dietrich, a Prussian government official, that a nation-wide census for disabled people was conducted. The concerns of the Reich-health-administration, which had complained about the way the survey was to be made, were neglected. These concerns were not all unjustified. Both the planning of the census itself and the technical interpretation of the obtained numbers were full of errors. The number of cripples in need of a place in an asylum were very exaggerated. Biesalski is to be held responsible for this systematic error. For him the census was only a way to influence the public opinion and had no scientific value. The public was worried by the great numbers of cripples in need of medical care and the foundation of asylums for cripples was added to the social political agenda. Along with these asylums came the promotion of orthopaedic surgery. The law, which laid the foundation for these institutions, the "law for the welfare of the cripples in Prussia" of 1920, would have never been passed, if it had not been for Biesalski's manipulated numbers. One can say that the artificially inflated numbers of the "Reichskrüppelzählung" were a lie for a good cause.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

A century of census tracts: health & the body politic (1906-2006).

In 2006, the U.S. celebrates the 100th birthday of the census tract. These geographic units, born out of concerns for urban well-being, were first proposed in 1906 to provide a "convenient and scientific city map system" for the City of New York. They were employed for the first time in the U.S. census in 1910 in eight cities, via a joint effort involving the U.S. Census Bureau and state and local health departments. Initially termed "sanitary areas" because of their relevance to planning for public health and health services, census tracts are now widely used by all sectors of government and by myriad disciplines in the health, social, and geographic sciences for research as well as policy development, implementation, and evaluation. In this article, I describe the census tract's underappreciated origins, give examples of its current use in analyzing and addressing social disparities in health and health care, and discuss its continued significance and implications for population health and the public data required for informed democratic governance.

Censuses↗
PubMed2004

China's missing children: the 2000 census underreporting surprise.

We compare the age and sex structure of China's 2000 population census to an estimate of that structure derived from a projection from the 1990 census. Based on China's own official estimates of demographic change, our intercensal analysis indicates a shortfall in enumeration of more than a quarter of all children under age 5 and an eighth of those between 5 and 9, a total of nearly 37 million children missing in the 2000 census. We show that the shortfall is primarily due to underreporting of children in the census. Sex differences in child underreporting were fairly minor. Child underreporting in China is not unprecedented, but child underreporting rates in 2000 were about triple those of previous censuses. We attribute the increase primarily to policy changes beginning in the early 1990s that held officials at all jurisdictional levels personally responsible for enforcing birth quotas.

Birth Rate↗
PubMed2001

Impact of patient socioeconomic status on physician profiles: a comparison of census-derived and individual measures.

BACKGROUND: Patient education has been shown to affect physician performance profiles. It is not known whether census-derived measures of patient socioeconomic status (SES) show comparable effects. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to compare the effects on physician profiles for patient satisfaction and physical and mental health of adjustment for patient SES derived from patient addresses geocoded to the census block group level, zip codes, and patient education. DESIGN: This was a cross-sectional survey of patients in physician practices. SETTING: Subjects came from adult primary care practices in western New York. PARTICIPANTS: A random sample of 100 primary care physicians and 50 consecutive patients seen by each physician participated in the study. MEASUREMENTS: Independent variables were census-derived (block group and zip code) patient SES and patient-reported education. The outcomes were physician ranks for patient satisfaction (Patient Satisfaction Questionnaire) and physical and mental health status (SF-12). RESULTS. In empirical Bayes models that adjusted for patient age, age squared, gender, insurance, and case mix, both the census-derived measures (block group and zip code) of SES and education had similar effects on each of the physician profiles. CONCLUSIONS. The results suggest that SES derived from either patient addresses geocoded to the census block group level or zip codes may offer a convenient alternative to individually collected SES when adjusting physician profiles for the socioeconomic characteristics of physicians' practices. The relative ease of using zip codes compared with geocoded addresses and loss of information associated with incomplete matching during geocoding suggest that zip code-derived SES may be preferable.

Censuses↗
PubMed2006

State psychiatric hospital census after the 1999 Olmstead Decision: evidence of decelerating deinstitutionalization.

OBJECTIVE: The Supreme Court ruled in the 1999 Olmstead decision that "unjustified isolation" of individuals with disabilities in institutions is a violation of the Americans With Disabilities Act. This study examined the extent to which state psychiatric hospital census across the United States has changed significantly post-Olmstead. METHODS: Twenty years of national state hospital census data (1984-2003) were used to assess trends in the rate of declines from pre- to post-Olmstead periods. Data were organized into five four-year periods. RESULTS: Steady declines in the hospital census nationally were found over all periods, with especially large decreases in the 1990s. However, when the percent change in hospital census in the two periods immediately before the Olmstead decision (between 1992-1995 and 1996-1999) were compared with the percent change in the periods immediately before and immediately after the Olmstead decision (between 1996-1999 and 2000-2003), an 8 percent decrease in the magnitude of decline was seen. CONCLUSIONS: State hospital census continues to decline but has slowed significantly during the post-Olmstead period. More study of the factors associated with this decline is needed.

Censuses↗
PubMed2000

History counts: a comparative analysis of racial/color categorization in US and Brazilian censuses.

Categories of race (ethnicity, color, or both) have appeared and continue to appear in the demographic censuses of numerous countries, including the United States and Brazil. Until recently, such categorization had largely escaped critical scrutiny, being viewed and treated as a technical procedure requiring little conceptual clarity or historical explanation. Recent political developments and methodological changes, in US censuses especially, have engendered a critical reexamination of both the comparative and the historical dimensions of categorization. The author presents a comparative analysis of the histories of racial/color categorization in American and Brazilian censuses and shows that racial (and color) categories have appeared in these censuses because of shifting ideas about race and the enduring power of these ideas as organizers of political, economic, and social life in both countries. These categories have not appeared simply as demographic markers. The author demonstrates that censuses are instruments at a state's disposal and are not simply detached registers of population and performance.

Brazil↗
PubMed1999

How much do we count? Interpretation and error-making in the decennial census.

Following a critique of the 1990 decennial census procedures, we conducted a field study among low-income, inner-city residents in 1991 to examine how they conceptualized and managed the civic task of census response. Interpretations about the purpose and meaning of the census, about commitment to the task, and about connection to government, singly and together with literacy skills (e.g., reading and general literacy competence), were associated with errors that are not detectable by evaluative methodologies used regularly by the Census Bureau. The validity and reliability of census data, and possibly other self-administered survey research, will be increased by greater use of knowledge about both interpretation and literacy skills in formulating data collection procedures.

Attitude↗
PubMed1981

Federal funding formulas and the 1980 census.

Distribution of federal funds has achieved equal status with Congressional reapportionment as a motivation and justification for the Census of Population and Housing. This article describes the effects that U.S. population redistribution during the 1970s, as measured by the 1980 Census, will have on the spatial distribution of federal grants-in-aid provided to state and local governments through programs with formula-based funding systems. The conclusion is that funding changes will not match population changes. The overall redistribution of federal grants-in-aid to state and local governments occurring in response to incorporation of 1980 Census population counts into federal funding formulas will be far less than the level of population redistribution since 1970. Use of intercensal data, formula specifications, limited geographic specificity in many formula allocations, and nonformula determinants of formula-based grants all weaken the relationship between Census-measured population change and the receipt of federal funds at the local level. Despite all the intervening factors, it is probably that in many programs there will be some redistribution of funds when the 1980 Census counts are incorporated into the allocation formulas. But the importance of measurement errors and threshold and reclassification effects may equal that of true population change in determining the funds received by local communities.

Financing, Government↗
PubMed2000

Developments in census taking in the last 25 years.

This article looks back at censuses of population conducted since 1971. It identifies some of the most important changes with respect to questions asked, methods of collecting the census and the production of outputs. In particular it discusses the introduction of the ONS Longitudinal Study following the 1971 Census and the Samples of Anonymised Records following the 1991 Census. This article outlines some of the changes being introduced for the 2001 Census, including methods of dealing with under-enumeration and improved access to outputs.

Censuses↗
PubMed2001

Every death counts: measurement of maternal mortality via a census.

Methods for measuring maternal mortality at national and subnational levels in the developing world lag far behind the demand for estimates. We evaluated use of the national population census as a means of measuring maternal mortality by assessing data from five countries (Benin, Islamic Republic of Iran, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Madagascar, and Zimbabwe) which identified maternal deaths in their censuses. Standard demographic methods were used to evaluate the completeness of reporting of adult female deaths and births in the year prior to the census. The results from these exercises were used to adjust the data. In four countries, the numbers of adult female deaths needed to be increased and three countries required upward adjustment of the numbers of recent births. The number of maternal deaths was increased by the same factor as that used for adult female deaths on the assumption that the proportion of adult female deaths due to maternal causes was correct. Age patterns of the various maternal mortality indicators were plausible and consistent with external sources of data for other populations. Our data suggest that under favourable conditions a national census is a feasible and promising approach for the measurement of maternal mortality. Moreover, use of the census circumvents several of the weaknesses of methods currently in use. However, it should also be noted that careful evaluation of the data and adjustment, if necessary, are essential. The public health community is urged to encourage governments to learn from the experience of these five countries and to place maternal mortality estimation in the hands of statistical agencies.

Censuses↗
PubMed2005

[Occupational mortality in the population employed at 1991 Census].

BACKGROUND: Despite limitations and problems connected to occupational surveillance systems based on mortality data, mortality from specific causes continues to be a crucial indicator for evaluating the differences in health among various occupations. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the potential of a surveillance system of occupational mortality based on census and mortality data obtained from ISTAT (Italian Central Statistics Institute). METHODS: By means of record-linkage between Census data and death records from ISTAT, occupational mortality was assessed during the twelve month period following the 1991 census, limited to subjects aged 18-64 years for whom occupational information was available. The study population consisted of deceased subjects, 19,527 of whom were men and 3,547 were women. A cross-sectional model was used to evaluate odds ratios for cause-specific mortality. The risk estimates were then compared to the results obtained in a previous analysis on Census data gathered in the 1981 census. RESULTS: Among the significantly increased risks observed both in 1981 and 1991, of particular interest are the excesses of mortality from liver cirrhosis in caretakers, janitors, and cleaning staff; and the excess of breast cancer in teachers. Mortality from cirrhosis in masons, porters, and waiters, and from violent causes in transport workers and bar and restaurant workers, was instead significantly in excess only in 1991. CONCLUSIONS: The data on mortality by occupation does not permit inferences about occupational risks, though they can be useful to highlight socio-economic differences in premature death in the employed segment of the population and to draw attention to possible trends over time.

Adolescent↗