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PubMed1992

Localized temperatures and water vapour pressures within clothing during alternate exercise/rest in the cold.

The purpose of this study was to determine the variation of localized skin temperatures, clothing surface temperatures and water vapour pressures within a clothing system when worn during alternating work/rest cycles in a cold environment. A two-layer prototype clothing system comprising underwear and a uniform was studied on eight subjects (Ta = Tr = 5 degrees C; Tdp = -3.5 degrees C; va = 0.32 m s-1; Itot = 0.24 m2 K W-1). The 2 h experiment comprised a twice-repeated bout of 40 min cycle exercise (W = 56 W m-2; M = 313 W m-2) followed by 20 min of rest (M = 62 W m-2). Esophageal, skin, clothing, and ambient temperatures, as well as dew-point temperatures near the skin, in the clothing and in the environment were monitored. In addition, evaporation of sweat and sweat accumulated in the clothing were determined. The temperatures and water vapour pressures in all clothing layers varied significantly with the human thermoregulatory responses (skin temperature, sweating) to alternating work/rest cycles. Different courses of localized corresponding temperatures and water vapour pressures indicated that various forms of heat transport and heat exchange in the skin-clothing-environment system are of significance in different body areas.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Detecting ticks on light versus dark clothing.

It is a common belief that ticks are more visible and easier to detect on light clothing in comparison with dark clothing. We studied which of the clothing, light or dark, had the least attractive effect on Ixodes ricinus, thus minimizing exposure and thereby in theory helping to prevent tick-borne diseases in humans. 10 participants, exposed by walking in tick endemic areas, wore alternately light and dark clothing before every new exposure. Nymphal and adult ticks on the clothing were collected and counted. In total, 886 nymphal ticks were collected. The overall mean in found ticks between both groups differed significantly, with 20.8 more ticks per person on light clothing. All participants had more ticks on light clothing in all periods of exposure. Dark clothing seems to attract fewer ticks.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1999

Continuing the search for WBGT clothing adjustment factors.

The original concept for the heat stress limits adopted by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) was that the threshold for heat stress can be marked by environmental conditions (WBGT) that are adjusted for metabolic rate. The underlying data were based on ordinary work clothes. The Physical Agents Committee promoted clothing adjustment factors within the industrial hygiene community through a revision in the TLVs for heat stress in 1990. As approved, there were adjustment factors for three other clothing ensembles. To extend and further understand adjustment factors, adjustments for commercially available clothing ensembles and prototype ensembles have been examined. The fundamental principle of the assignment of an adjustment factor to an ensemble begins with establishing critical environmental conditions in which test subjects were just able to maintain thermal equilibrium. Four or five subjects for each ensemble walked on a tread-mill inside a climatic chamber under controlled conditions of heat stress. During each test, heart rate and core temperature were continuously monitored. After a physiological steady-state was achieved, temperature and humidity were slowly increased to maintain relative humidity at 20 percent, 50 percent, or 70 percent. Metabolic rate was assessed by measuring the rate of oxygen consumption. Reviewing a trial, the critical conditions were noted as the time when thermal regulatory control was lost (called the inflection point and marked by a steady increase in core temperature). The climatic conditions at the inflection point were used to assign a critical WBGT. A WBGT representative of each ensemble was assigned through a weighted average of different protocols. Clothing adjustment factors representing an equivalent increase in WBGT were computed by noting the difference between the representative WBGT of the cotton work clothes and the other clothing ensembles. The results suggested adjustment factors with reference to ordinary work clothes from the least stress at -2.1 to 5.5 degrees C-WBGT. The adjustment factors were reasonably well predicted by a linear regression based on a computed value for total evaporative resistance (r2 = 0.92).

Adult↗
PubMed1981

Effect of heat stress on physiological factors for industrial workers performing routine work and wearing impermeable vapor-barrier clothing.

The thermal hazards of suits impermeable to water vapor have been documented where fatal heat strokes have occurred during exercise in plastic suits at ambient temperatures as low as 26.7 degrees C. Research has shown that during work with impermeable vapor-barrier clothing (VB) the body temperature rises at a faster rate than without VB clothing. The purpose of this work was to study the effect of wearing VB clothing in hot environments on physiological responses (body temperature and pulse rates) for a group of workers performing routing work and to demonstrate the ease with which meaningful physiological measurements can be made on individual workers. Workers who wore VB clothing reached an extrapolated 37.6 degree C oral temperature at a 2.8 degrees C lower WBGT index that workers not wearing the VB clothing. When work durations in VB clothing exceeded 45 minutes, the oral temperature exceeded 37.6 degrees C. Also, these workers had no recovery pulses rates about 65% of the time after they worked in VB clothing for 15 minutes. The implementation of engineering and administrative controls and the use of a vortex-cooled air suit significantly reduced the stress produced by the physical labor, the VB clothing and the heat exposure.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

A cautionary note: survival of nymphs of two species of ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) among clothes laundered in an automatic washer.

Host-seeking ticks often remain on clothing of persons returning home from work or recreation in tick habitats, and can pose at least a temporary risk to people and pets in these homes. Laundering clothing has been one of the recommendations to reduce tick exposure. Host-seeking lone star tick, Amblyomma americanum (L.), and blacklegged tick, Ixodes scapularis Say, nymphs confined in polyester mesh packets, were included with laundry in cold, warm, and hot wash cycles of an automatic clothes washer. Ticks were also placed with washed clothing and subjected to drying in an automatic clothes dryer set on high heat and on air only (unheated). Most nymphs (> or = 90%) of both species survived the cold and warm washes, and 95% of A. americanum nymphs survived the hot wash. At the time of their removal from the washer, I. scapularis nymphs were clearly affected by the hot wash, but 65% were considered alive 20-24 h later. Large percentages of nymphs of both species survived hot washes in which two other detergents (a powder containing a nonchlorine bleach and a liquid) were used. All ticks were killed by the 1 h cycle at high heat in the clothes dryer, but with unheated air some nymphs of both species survived the 1 h cycle in the dryer. Given the laundering recommendations of clothing manufacturers and variation in the use automatic clothes washers, laundry washed in automatic washers should not be considered free of living ticks.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Effect of wearing clothes on oxygen uptake and ratings of perceived exertion while swimming.

For a comparative study between swimming in swimwear (control-sw) and swimming in clothes (clothes-sw), oxygen uptake (VO2) and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were measured. The subjects were six male members of a university swimming team. Three swimming strokes--the breaststroke, the front crawl stroke and the elementary backstroke--were applied. With regards to clothes-sw, swimmers wore T-shirts, sportswear (shirt and pants) over swimwear and running shoes. In both cases of control-sw and clothes-sw, the VO2 was increased exponentially with increased swimming speed. The VO2 of the subjects during the clothed tests did not exceed 1.4 times of that in the case of control-sw at swimming speeds below 0.3 m/s. As swimming speeds increased, VO2 difference in both cases increased. Consequently, VO2 in the clothed tests was equal to 1.5-1.6 times and 1.5-1.8 times of that in the swimwear tests at speeds of 0.5 and 0.7 m/s, respectively. At speeds below 0.6 m/s in clothes-sw, the breaststroke showed lower VO2 than the front crawl stroke, and the elementary backstroke showed higher VO2 than the other two swimming strokes. RPE increased linearly with %peak VO2. In addition, any RPE differences among the three swimming strokes were not shown in the control-sw tests. At an exercise intensity above 60 %peak VO2, clothed swimmers showed slightly higher RPE in the front crawl stroke compared to that in the two other swimming strokes.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Physiological problems associated with wearing NBC protective clothing during cold weather.

This report considers how thermal balance of soldiers wearing nuclear, biological and chemical (NBC) protective clothing in combination with the Extreme Cold Weather Clothing System (ECWCS) is affected during work in cold weather. A review of published reports concerning physiological consequences of wearing NBC protective clothing during cold exposure was completed. The findings reported in the experimental literature were too limited to adequately forecast the effects of adding NBC clothing to ECWCS. To remedy the information gap, simulation modeling was employed to predict body temperature changes during alternating bouts of exercise and rest throughout 8 h of exposure to three different severely cold conditions. Published findings indicate that NBC protective clothing may inadequately protect against hand and finger cooling, especially during rest following strenuous activity. No evidence substantiates suggestions that wearing NBC protective masks increases susceptibility to facial frostbite. Collectively, the limited experimental work and the results of simulation modeling argue against any increased risk of hypothermia associated with wearing NBC protective clothing while working in the cold. However, wearing NBC protective clothing during strenuous activity in cold weather may increase the risk of hyperthermia, and cause sweat accumulation in clothing which may compromise insulation and increase the risk of hypothermia during subsequent periods of inactivity.

Body Temperature↗
PubMed1993

Occupational needs and evaluation methods for cold protective clothing.

The aim of the study was to evaluate the needs for and properties of the occupational cold protective clothing with different methods and the risks related to work in cold conditions from the point of view of occupational hygiene and clothing physiology. The thermal insulation of textile materials and clothing was investigated with the equipment, methods and parameters developed especially in cold and windy conditions in dynamic and steady states. Also the simulation and calculation of results were done and compared to the measurements. The cold exposure from the point of occupational hygiene was evaluated in working life to evaluate the risk of cooling and frostbite and utility ranges of clothing. The function of the sweating hot plate constructed and cylinder in the wind tunnel could be regarded adequate for the evaluation of winter clothing with good precision, stability and repeatability. The measured total thermal resistance was mainly dependent on, and operative thermal resistance independent of, temperature. The operative thermal resistance was also very sensitive to errors in measurement procedures. The heat flow usually evaluated by thermal and water vapour resistance could be substituted for total thermal resistance. Both the measurements and theories showed that, in addition to air permeability, also the ambient temperature, air gaps, contact layers and thickness of clothing were important parameters. Increase of wind (1...8 m/s) decreased the total thermal resistance and mass transfer up to 60% depending on conditions. The comparison of calculation models with material measurements proved the value of the simulation models. The reason for differences between the methods was mainly due to changes in water vapour resistance in the cold. The heat flux method was exact enough in the evaluation of the insulation of clothing in the field but in sweating conditions the condensation and evaporation must be taken into consideration. In the case of heat debt in the cold the heat flux method gave smaller values than the thermometric method. The material measurements diverged logically from the clothing measurements but material methods had a better capability to analyze the differences of material ensembles. In the evaluation of body cooling and performance degradation in outdoor work the physiological recommendations given were temporarily exceeded in 70% of the cases measured (N = 143). The cold problems already occurred in temperatures from 0 to 10 degrees C. The reasons for the cold problems were related to the type of work e.g. wind to the face and long exposure to the feet caused frostbite.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Body Temperature↗
PubMed1993

Work performance at 40 degrees C with Canadian Forces biological and chemical protective clothing.

This study examined the effects of a hot environmental temperature (40 degrees C and 50% relative humidity) and metabolic rate on soldiers' tolerance time (TT) while wearing various levels of the Canadian Forces biological and chemical (BC) defence protective clothing. The subjects, 19 unacclimatized males, were assigned to exercise at either a light intermittent (LI) (N = 4), light continuous (LC) (N = 5), moderate continuous (MC) (N = 5) or heavy continuous (HC) (N = 5) metabolic rate. For groups LI and LC, exercise involved walking on a treadmill at 4.0 km.h-1 with a 0% grade and lifting 10 kg boxes. LI alternated between 15 min of exercise and 15 min of rest. Group MC walked at 4.8 km.h-1 with a 3% grade and lifted 15 kg boxes. Group HC walked at 4.8 km.h-1 with a 7.5% grade and lifted 20 kg. Subjects were tested wearing three levels of clothing protection: combat clothing (L); combat clothing and a semi-permeable BC overgarment (M); combat clothing and BC overgarment, gloves, boots and respirator (H). TT was the time until rectal temperature reached 39.3 degrees C, heart rate reached 95% maximum, dizziness or nausea precluded further exercise, or 5 h had elapsed. For group LI, TT was similar for L (137 +/- 15 min) and M (117 +/- 9 min) clothing. TT was significantly reduced for H (67 +/- 6 min) clothing. For group LC, TT was greater for L (91 +/- 11 min) compared with either M (68 +/- 7 min) or H (55 +/- 2 min) clothing.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Bactericidal clothes reduce infections in elderly bed-bound nursing home patients.

Infections in elderly bed-bound nursing home patients are serious care problems. In order to protect against infections we adopted bactericidal clothes (Sanmo Co., Kyoto, Japan). First, we studied how bactericidal clothes sterilise bacteria in vitro. The bactericidal clothes kill methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), E. Coli, Krebsiella and Pseudomonas aureus, over 99%, 3 h after contact, while these bacteria can survive over 18 h on conventional cotton clothes. Second, ninety elderly patients were divided into two groups; the control group and the "treated" group with bactericidal clothes. In Period 1 neither group received particular treatment for three months and in Period 2 only the treated group used bactericidal clothes for three months. The control group in Period 2 used regular clothes throughout. The number of febrile days was significantly lower for the treated group, compared with the control group. It is suggested that the bactericidal clothes reduce infections in elderly patients.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2005

The antibacterial action of cloths and sanitizers and the use of environmental alternatives in food industries.

The use of cleaning cloths in food industries has been implicated in the spread and growth of infective bacteria. Generic cloths sanitized with hot water at 75 degrees C and chemical sanitizers such as quaternary ammonium compounds (QAC) and hypochlorites currently used in food industries were compared with environmentally conscious alternatives such as fiber cloths sanitized with hot water at 75 degrees C. The results indicated that concentrations of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli on the fiber cloths were significantly lower than concentrations of bacteria on most of the generic cloths sanitized with hot water at 75 degrees C or a chemical sanitizer. Concentrations of bacteria on the fiber cloths sanitized with hot water at 75 degrees C also were lower than concentrations on cloths sanitized with chemical sanitizers. Concentrations of bacteria on the generic cloths, however, were significantly increased.

Anti-Bacterial Agents↗
PubMed2003

Clothing and thermoregulation during exercise.

Exercise increases heat production. During exercise in both warm and cold conditions, the major dilemma is the dissipation of the heat produced from muscular activity. The use of clothing generally represents a layer of insulation and as such imposes a barrier to heat transfer and evaporation from the skin surface. In warm environments, additional clothing increases thermal insulation causing more rapid increases in temperature during exercise and imposes a barrier to sweat evaporation. However, clothing can serve a protective function by reducing radiant heat gain and thermal stress. Recent research suggests that neither the inclusion of modest amounts of clothing nor the clothing fabric alter thermoregulation or thermal comfort during exercise in warm conditions. In the cold, most reports do not support an effect of clothing fabric on thermoregulation; however, there are reports demonstrating an effect. Clothing construction does alter thermoregulation during and following exercise in the cold, where fishnet construction offers greater heat dissipation. Future research should include conditions that more closely mimic outdoor conditions, where high work rates, large airflow and high relative humidity can significantly impact thermoregulation.

Body Temperature Regulation↗
PubMed1996

Heat strain while wearing the current Canadian or a new hot-weather French NBC protective clothing ensemble.

BACKGROUND: A new nuclear, biological and chemical (NBC) protective garment has been designed for use in hot environments. This NBC battle dress uniform (NBC-BDU) is intended to be worn over the skin or, at most, over underwear and an undershirt. It is unclear whether the documented reductions in heat strain associated with wearing this clothing configuration represent simply the removal of the combat clothing layer normally worn underneath a NBC protective overgarment or an improved heat transfer through the new NBC-BDU. HYPOTHESIS: It was hypothesized that the removal of the combat clothing layer would produce a significant reduction in heat strain. As a result, it was also hypothesized that there would be no difference in heat strain between this new NBC-BDU and the current Canadian protective overgarment when the remaining clothing was standardized. METHODS: There were 9 males who alternated 15 min of walking at 1.11 m.s-1 and 15 min of seated rest for a maximum of 4 h in a chamber set at 40 degrees C, 30% relative humidity and a wind speed less than 0.1 m.s-1 while wearing underwear, an undershirt and the current Canadian protective overgarment either with (C + C) or without (C-C) combat clothing underneath and the new NBC-BDU worn over underwear and an undershirt. RESULTS: All indices of heat strain which included tolerance time, sweat rates, sweat evaporation, Tre, Tsk, skin and garment vapor pressures, and heart rate indicated a significant improvement when the combat clothing was removed regardless of which NBC protective garment was worn. The new NBC-BDU was associated with a lower Tre after 2 h of exposure and lower skin and garment vapor pressures compared with the Canadian overgarment. Other indices of heat strain were not different between the NBC-BDU and C-C configurations. CONCLUSIONS: During light intermittent exercise when the rate of heat production is low, the removal of the combat clothing layer as part of the Canadian NBC protective ensemble is recommended to significantly reduce the heat strain.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

Pesticide protective clothing.

In looking into future directions of "protective clothing" for pesticide users, the final EPA ruling scheduled for release in June 1992 (Smith personal communication) places the majority of its recommendations on the label. Therefore, it will be up to pesticide manufacturers to provide protective clothing information on their products labels. Research on protective clothing continues to show variations due to fabric characteristics of fiber content, fabric construction and finish. These variabilities are compounded by variation s due to pesticide formulation and pesticide chemical and are further compounded by field studies vs laboratory simulations. With hundreds of fabric variations compounded by the thousands of chemical compounds and formulation variations, the consumer cannot be expected to make proper decisions regarding protective clothing. The user of the product does not have the knowledge to select the appropriate clothing. Manufacturers must supply this information, but they must also have data to support recommendations of their clothing for pesticide protection. This shifts the responsibility for recommending adequate protective clothing, as well as the concern for product liability, to the manufacturer.

Humans↗
PubMed2002

Role of clothes in sun protection.

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is the carcinogenic factor in sunlight. Damage to skin cells from repeated UV exposure can lead to the development of skin cancer. Apart from avoidance of the sun, the most frequently used form of UV protection has been the application of sunscreens. The use of textiles as a means of sun protection has been underrated in previous educational campaigns, even though suitable clothing offers usually simple and effective broadband protection against the sun. Apart from skin cancer formation, exacerbation of photosensitive disorders and premature skin aging could be prevented by suitable UV-protective clothing. Nevertheless, several studies have recently shown that, contrary to popular opinion, some textiles provide only limited UV protection. It has been found that one-third of commercial summer clothing items provide a UV protection factor (UPF) less than 15. Given the increasing interest in sun protection, recreationally and occupationally, test methods and a rating scheme for clothing were needed that would ensure sufficient UV protection. Various textile parameters have an influence on the UPF of a finished garment. Important parameters are the fabric porosity, type, color, weight and thickness. The application of UV absorbers into the yarns significantly improves the UPF of a garment. Under the conditions of wear and use several factors can alter the UV-protective properties of a textile, e.g., stretch, wetness and laundering. The use of UV-blocking cloths can provide excellent protection against the hazards of sunlight; this is especially true for garments manufactured as UV-protective clothing. However, further educational efforts are necessary to change people's sun behavior and raise awareness for the use of adequate sun-protective clothing.

Humans↗
PubMed1991

Thermoregulatory and subjective responses of clothed men in the cold during continuous and intermittent exercise.

Thermoregulatory and thermal subjective responses were studied in ten male, clothed subjects during continuous (C) and intermittent (I) exercise at the same average level of oxygen consumption. The subjects performed both I and C twice, dressed in two different three-layer cold-protective clothing ensembles of two thermal insulation levels [total clothing insulation = 2.59 clo (L) and 3.20 clo (H)]. Experiments were carried out at an ambient temperature of -10 degrees C. Rectal temperatures increased similarly in both types of exercise. Mean skin temperature (Tsk) was lower in I compared to C with both levels of clothing insulation. Over the last 0.5 h of the experiment Tsk was approximately 1.3 degrees C lower in I than in C for clothing L. The skin evaporation rate was higher in clothing H than L but did not differ between I and C. Subjective ratings for thermal sensations of the whole body (BTS) and hands were close to neutral in I and around slightly warm in C. The BTS was lower in I than in C and was lower in L compared to H. It was concluded that, at equal average energy expenditure, thermal responses to intermittent and continuous exercise in the cold differ in clothed subjects, principally as a result of different patterns of heat exchange.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Maximal physical work performance with European standard based fire-protective clothing system and equipment in relation to individual characteristics.

Every fire fighter needs to wear fire-protective clothing and a self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) several times a year while carrying out various fire-fighting and rescue operations in hazardous work environments. The aim of the present study was to quantify the effects of a multilayer turnout suit designed to fulfil European standard EN 469 used over standardized (Nordic) clothing and with SCBA (total mass 25.9 kg) on maximal physical work performance, and to evaluate the relationship between individual characteristics and power output with the fire-protective clothing system and SCBA. The subjects were 12 healthy firemen aged 26-46 years. The range of their body mass, body fat and maximal oxygen consumption was 69-101 kg, 10-20% and 2.70-5.86 l.min-1, respectively. The maximal tests without (control) and with the fire-protective clothing system and SCBA were carried out on a treadmill in a thermoneutral environment. When compared to the control test, the decrease in the maximal power output in terms of maximal working time and walking speed averaged 25% (P < 0.001) varying from 18% to 34% with the fire-protective clothing system and SCBA. At maximum, no significant differences were found in pulmonary ventilation, absolute oxygen consumption, the respiratory exchange ratio, heart rate, systolic blood pressure, the rate-pressure product, mechanical efficiency, and the rating of perceived exertion between the tests with and without the fire-protective clothing system and SCBA. The reduction of the power output was related to the extra mass of the fire protective clothing and SCBA.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adult↗
PubMed2004

A test battery related to ergonomics of protective clothing.

Specialised protective clothing, such as that worn by firefighters, is usually tested only to standards which give requirements for the materials used (e.g. EN469). However, this testing often neglects the effect the manufacturing process of the garment has on the material properties, the effects of clothing design, sizing and fit, as well as the interaction of the clothing with other components of the standard gear for the profession. Such effects can only be tested by looking at the protective gear as a whole. This paper deals with methods to do additional testing on protective garments with firefighter clothing as example. In other words, methods which go beyond EN469. Human subject tests for physiological load, heat protection, ergonomic design, loss of performance, rain/moisture protection and conspicuity/visibility of the clothing are described and proposed for evaluation of protective clothing in general and for further development of standards on firefighters' clothing.

Equipment Design↗