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PubMed1980

Peaton virus: a new Simbu group arbovirus isolated from cattle and Culicoides brevitarsis in Australia.

A new member of the Simbu group of arboviruses, for which the name Peaton virus is proposed, has been isolated from midges and cattle in Australia. Nine isolates were obtained from 101 pools of the biting midge Culicoides brevitarsis collected at Peachester, Qld, (26.51 degrees S., 152.53 degrees E.) between 30 November and 8 December 1976. Three isolations of the same virus were made from the blood of sentinel cattle collected at Grafton and Tamworth, N.S.W., on 20 January and 13 April 1977, respectively. Peaton virus was shown to be a member of the Simbu group of arboviruses by complement-fixation tests using antisera prepared against Australian strains of Akabane and Aino viruses. It was readily distinguishable from these viruses in cross-neutralization tests in tissue cultures and mice. A serological survey of sentinel cattle showed that neutralizing antibody was detectable only in cattle within the recorded limits of the suspected vector C. brevitarsis. Neutralizing antibody in blood serum was detected in 22 of 157 sheep, 21 of 137 horses, 7 of 18 buffaloes, 7 of 20 goats and 3 of 62 pigs, but not in 22 camels, 34 dogs, 3 cats, 76 human beings, 240 marsupials, 19 reptiles or 31 wild birds. The pathogenecity of Peaton virus has yet to be determined. The Yale Arbovirus Research Unit and the Center for Disease Control, Fort Collins, U.S.A., found that Peaton virus was distinguishable from all other Simbu group viruses and thus is a new virus.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Persistence of arboviruses and antiviral antibodies in vertebrate hosts: its occurrence and impacts.

The recent isolation of West Nile virus from a bird in mid-winter in New York immediately raised, as one of a few explanations, the possibility of long-term persistence of arboviruses in vertebrate hosts. Although it was a highly popular topic for research many years ago, generally it has since been neglected and its meaning under appreciated. This comprehensive survey of literature worldwide uncovered, contrary to the general perception that it is a rather infrequent phenomenon, a large number of important observations involving all groups of arboviruses that have been accumulating over the years without drawing much attention. In this review, the data and observations were analysed in terms of the occurrence, role in natural transmission, mechanisms and genesis of persistence, source of problems in research and impact. The outcome of the analyses clearly demonstrates that asymptomatic, long-term infection in the absence of viraemia with or without the induction of neutralising antibody, the most frequent characteristics of arboviral persistence, presents a serious question about the validity of some of the past animal experiments that were conducted without the consideration of such a possibility. Likewise, significant impacts are felt on diverse fields ranging from epidemiology to diagnostic virology and from veterinary medicine to agricultural commerce. Published in 2001 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Animal Diseases↗
PubMed2005

Control of arbovirus diseases: is the vector the weak link?

Arthropod-borne virus (arbovirus) diseases (ABVDs) remain major threats to human health and well-being and, as an epidemiologic group, inflict an unacceptable health and economic burden on humans and animals, including livestock. The developed world has been fortunate to have escaped much of the burden that arboviruses and their arthropod vectors inflict on humans in disease endemic countries, but the introduction and rapid spread of West Nile virus in the Western Hemisphere demonstrated that we can no longer be complacent in the face of these emerging and resurging vector-borne diseases. Unfortunately, as the burdens and threats of ABVDs have increased, the U.S. and international public health capacity to address them has decreased. Vaccines are not available for most of these agents. Previously successful strategies to control ABVDs emphasized vector control, but source reduction and vector control strategies using pesticides have not been sustainable. New insights into vector biology and vector pathogen interactions, and the novel targets that likely will be forthcoming in the vector post-genomics era, provide new targets and opportunities for vector control and disease reduction programs. These findings and approaches must be incorporated into existing strategies if we are to control these important pathogens.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Emergence and virulence of encephalitogenic arboviruses.

Each arbovirus that causes encephalitis is geographically restricted by the availability of appropriate vectors and reservoir hosts. These viruses evolve regionally by recombination, reassortment and point mutation and can "emerge" as causes of human encephalitis through extension to new geographic regions or by selection of more virulent or more efficiently transmitted virus variants. The properties of arboviruses that result in encephalitis involve efficient replication in peripheral tissues after initiation of infection, production of a viremia, entry into the central nervous system and efficient replication in neurons with spread to additional populations of neurons. Many of these steps are determined by properties of the envelope glycoproteins responsible for cellular attachment, but changes in noncoding regions of the genome, as well as in other structural and nonstructural proteins, also contribute to neurovirulence.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Arboviruses causing human disease in the Australasian zoogeographic region.

Over 65 arboviruses have been reported from countries in the Australasian zoogeographic region, but only a few have been implicated in human disease. These include the flaviviruses Murray Valley encephalitis (MVE), Kunjin (KUN), Kokobera (KOK), and dengue, particularly types 1 and 2; the alphaviruses Ross River (RR), Barmah Forest (BF), and Sindbis (SIN); and the bunyaviruses, Gan Gan and Trubanaman. In this paper recent epidemiological and clinical results pertaining to these viruses are reviewed, with major emphasis on MVE and RR viruses. The extensive early studies of Australian arboviruses have been reviewed by Doherty [49, 50], and their ecology and vectors more recently by Kay and Standfast [87]. In addition, the biology of MVE and KUN [113] and RR [87, 114] viruses have been the subjects of more detailed reviews. The Australasian zoogeographic region is defined as countries east of the Wallace and Weber lines, two hypothetical lines in the Indo-Australian archipelago where the fauna of the Australasian and Oriental regions meet. Seroepidemiological studies of human arboviral infections have suggested that the Japanese encephalitis flavivirus and the chikungunya alphavirus occur only in the Oriental region, whereas the related MVE and RR viruses, respectively, are restricted to the Australasian region [85, 148]. Serological results from Wallacea, the zone between the Wallace and Weber lines, are not so clear-cut [85]. This review is therefore restricted to countries east of Wallacea, specifically New Guinea and Australia.

Animals↗
PubMed1982

Arboviruses and lemurs in Madagascar: a preliminary note.

The epidemiological role played by lemurs in the circulation of arboviruses in Madagascar has been studied. From serological (HAI) tests, exposure of lemurs to alphaviruses and flaviviruses appears to vary considerably with location and species of lemur; positive tests varied from 0 to 32%. Finally, the data concerning the lemurophilic part of the mosquito fauna suggests that some lemur species and man are infected by the same arboviruses, especially West Nile virus. The susceptibility of these primates to yellow fever virus, which has not yet occurred in Madagascar is under study.

Animals↗
PubMed1987

Anthropophilic mosquitoes at Richards Bay, Natal, and arbovirus antibodies in human residents.

A survey at Richards Bay, the site of a new international harbour on the east coast of South Africa, revealed the presence of 11 anthropophilic mosquito species. These are discussed in relation to their known medical importance and to a complementary survey of arbovirus antibodies among residents of the area. Mansonia uniformis was by far the most abundant man-biting mosquito. Antibodies against Germiston, Banzi and Rift Valley Fever viruses were the three most commonly encountered, being detected in 29.7, 12.2 and 8.7% of residents respectively. This new knowledge updates the distribution and prevalence of arbovirus antibodies in man in northern Natal.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Simultaneous detection of bovine arboviruses using single-tube multiplex reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction.

Single-tube multiplex reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (mRT-PCR) assay was developed to detect and identify arboviruses in infected cell-culture fluids and field specimens. The technique was equally sensitive for detecting five different viruses in cell cultures, namely the Chuzan, Ibaraki, and Bluetongue viruses belonging to Orbivirus, and the Akabane virus and Peaton virus belonging to Orthobunyavirus, and was less sensitive than former viruses for detecting Aino virus belonging to Orthobunyavirus. The mRT-PCR reliably detected 0.6-10(3.1) median tissue culture infective doses. The mRT-PCR readily identified viruses by discriminating the size of their amplified gene products. The technique was as sensitive as virus isolation in detecting single infected plasma in five plasmas from sentinel cattle and in detecting two infectious homogenates in eight homogenates of Culicoides biting midges. The mRT-PCR may be a sensitive and rapid assay for surveillance of bovine arboviruses in field specimens.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Seroepidemiology of arboviruses among seabirds and island residents of the Great Barrier Reef and Coral Sea.

Duplicate neutralization tests were done on 401 avian and 101 human sera from island residents collected in the Coral Sea and on Australia's Great Barrier Reef against 19 known arboviruses. Antibodies to a potentially harmful flavivirus, Gadget's Gully virus, were equally present (4%) in both avian and human sera. Antibodies to another flavivirus, Murray Valley Encephalitis, and an ungrouped isolate, CSIRO 1499, were also present in both populations with non-significantly different incidences. Antibodies to Upolu, Johnston Atoll, Lake Clarendon, Taggert, Saumarez Reef and CSIRO 264 viruses were restricted to seabirds. Island residents with antibodies to Ross River and Barmah Forest viruses are thought to have been exposed to these viruses on the mainland as antibody to both viruses was absent among seabirds. These results indicate that consideration should be given to tick-associated arboviruses as potential public health hazards on islands where both seabird and human activities interact.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Possible ecology and epidemiology of medically important mosquito-borne arboviruses in Great Britain.

Nine different arboviruses are known to be transmitted by, or associated with, mosquitoes in Europe, and several (West Nile, Sindbis and Tahyna viruses) are reported to cause outbreaks of human disease. Although there have been no reported human cases in Great Britain (GB), there have been no published in-depth serological surveys for evidence of human infection. This paper investigates the ecological and entomological factors that could influence or restrict transmission of these viruses in GB, suggesting that in addition to West Nile virus, Sindbis and Tahyna viruses could exist in enzootic cycles, and that certain ecological factors could facilitate transmission to humans. However, the level of transmission is likely to be lower than in endemic foci elsewhere in Europe due to key ecological differences related to spatial and temporal dynamics of putative mosquito vectors and presence of key reservoir hosts. Knowledge of the potential GB-specific disease ecology can aid assessments of risk from mosquito-borne arboviruses.

Animals↗
PubMed1980

Arboviruses of coastal south-eastern Australia.

During investigations of epidemic polyarthritis at Nelson Bay, New South Wales, 12 strains of Ross River virus, the causative agent, were recovered from pools of mosquitoes. In addition, the mosquito pools yielded 9 strains of the flavivirus Edge Hill, 4 strains of a bunyavirus, Gan Gan, 1 strain of an orbivirus Tilligerry, and 1 strain of an ungrouped probable arbovirus, Yacaaba. The latter 3 viruses were found to be antigenically distinct from previously recorded arboviruses. A case of epidemic polyarthritis probably contracted at Bawley Point, approximately 400 kilometres south of Nelson Bay on the south coast of New South Wales, is recorded. Mosquitoes collected in the nearby Termeil State Forest one year later yielded a strain of Ross River virus and 5 strains of a previously undescribed ungrouped togavirus, Termeil. The extent of arboviral activity in temperate coastal areas of south-eastern Australia was unexpected.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) and arbovirus activity on the south coast of New South Wales, Australia, in 1985-1988.

An investigation of the seasonal activity of adult mosquitoes and arboviruses in two native forests revealed a mosquito fauna comprising 33 species for the Mogo State Forest-Batemans Bay locality and 34 species for the Termeil State Forest. The mosquito Aedes vigilax was the most abundant species in salt marshes at Mogo State Forest-Batemans Bay, whereas the freshwater species Anopheles annulipes s.l. and Coquillettidia linealis were most abundant at Termeil State Forest. Major faunal differences between the two environments reflected the extensive saline marsh and mudflat estuarine habitats at Batemans Bay and the predominantly freshwater stream, marsh, and lake habitats of Termeil State Forest. A total of 218 virus isolates was recovered from the mosquitoes, comprising Ross River virus (86 isolates), Gan Gan virus (123 isolates), Termeil virus (2 isolates), and 7 unidentified viruses. The period of greatest arbovirus activity was from midsummer through midautumn and coincided with the overall peak activity of the most common mosquito species. Ae. vigilax yielded most isolates of Ross River and Gan Gan viruses and appeared to be the vector of greatest public health concern.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Adaptations of arboviruses to ticks.

Arboviruses differ from other viruses in their need to replicate in both vertebrate and invertebrate hosts. The invertebrate is a blood-sucking arthropod that is competent to transmit the virus between susceptible animals. Arboviruses transmitted by ticks must adapt to the peculiar physiological and behavioral characteristics of ticks, particularly with regard to blood feeding, bloodmeal digestion, and molting. Virus imbibed with the blood meal first infects cells of the midgut wall. During this phase the virus must contend with the heterophagic bloodmeal digestion of ticks (an intracellular process occurring within midgut cells) and overcome the as yet undefined "gut barrier" to infection. Genetic and molecular data for a number of tick-borne viruses indicate ways in which such viruses may have adapted to infecting ticks, but far more information is needed. After infection of midgut cells, tick-borne viruses pass to the salivary glands for transmission during the next blood-feeding episode. To do this, the virus must survive molting by establishing an infection in at least one cell type that does not undergo histolysis. Different tick-borne viruses have different strategies for surviving the molting period, targeting a variety of tick tissues. The infection can then persist for the life span of the tick with little evidence of any detrimental effects on the tick. Transmission to a vertebrate host during feeding most probably occurs via saliva that contains virus secreted from infected salivary gland cells. The virus then enters the skin site of feeding, which has been profoundly modified by the pharmacological effects of tick saliva. At least three tick-borne viruses exploit such tick-induced host changes. This phenomenon (saliva-activated transmission) is believed to underlie "nonviremic transmission," whereby a virus is transmitted from an infected to an uninfected cofeeding tick through a host that has an undetectable or very low viremia. Thus tick-borne viruses that have adapted to the feeding characteristics of their tick vectors may not need to induce a virulent infection (with high viremia) in their natural vertebrate hosts. Efficient transmission of tick-borne viruses between cofeeding ticks may be a means of amplifying virus infection prevalence in F1 generations infected by transovarial transmission.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed2005

Isolation of bovine arboviruses from Culicoides biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) in southern Japan: 1985--2002.

In 1985--2002, surveillance for bovine arboviruses was conducted in Kagoshima, located in the most southern part of the main islands of Japan and known to be an area where bovine arboviral diseases have frequently been epidemic. Culicoides biting midges were collected in a cowshed by light traps. A total of 456,300 Culicoides biting midges representing 13 species were collected, and a portion of each pool of midges were tested for virus isolation. Overall, 85 isolates of six different viruses were obtained from the collected midges. The isolated viruses included two Orthobunyaviruses, Akabane and Aino viruses; three Orbiviruses, Chuzan, D'Aguliar, and Ibaraki viruses; and one unclassified virus, a bunyavirus-like virus. The viruses were most frequently isolated from Culicoides oxystoma Kieffer (85.9% of 85 isolates). Isolations of all viruses except for the bunyavirus-like virus were made from this species. Our data indicated that C. oxystoma is a potential vector for bovine arboviruses in southern Japan.

Animals↗
PubMed1972

Method for accelerated identification of arboviruses after inoculation of mice.

Sequential titration of infective virus and complement-fixing antigen in brain and liver of suckling mice infected with the following virus strains-Dugbe (a new arbovirus), Congo (related to Crimean hemorrhagic fever virus), yellow fever, dengue 1 and dengue 2-showed a progressive increase in titer after infection. High titers of both infective virus and complement-fixing antigen were demonstrated long before the mice showed clinical signs of infection. It is suggested that earlier isolation and identification of arboviruses from clinical and field specimens can be made if serological tests are done before mice are moribund.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

Antibodies to arboviruses in an Alaskan population at occupational risk of infection.

A total of 435 United States Geological Survey and United States Forest Service workers in Alaska were studied for serologic evidence of past infections with four arboviruses known or suspected to be human pathogens. Of the personnel tested, 36 (8.3%) had the neutralizing antibody to Jamestown Canyon but not snowshoe hare virus, 6 (1.4%) had the antibody to snowshoe hare but not Jamestown Canyon virus, 53 (12.2%) had the antibody to both viruses, 17 (3.9%) had the antibody to Northway virus, and 15 (3.4%) had the antibody to Klamath virus. The indices most significantly correlated with presence of the Jamestown Canyon and snowshoe hare antibodies were the amount of fieldwork (p less than 0.001 for both antibodies) and the duration of employment by the agencies (p less than 0.0001 for Jamestown Canyon and 0.004 for snowshoe hare). The antibody to the four arboviruses also correlated strongly with a history of travel in certain remote or wilderness areas in Alaska (p values ranged from less than 0.001 to 0.086).

Alaska↗
PubMed2000

Culicoides biting midges: their role as arbovirus vectors.

Culicoides biting midges are among the most abundant of haematophagous insects, and occur throughout most of the inhabited world. Across this broad range they transmit a great number of assorted pathogens of human, and domestic and wild animals, but it is as vectors of arboviruses, and particularly arboviruses of domestic livestock, that they achieve their prime importance. To date, more than 50 such viruses have been isolated from Culicoides spp. and some of these cause diseases of such international significance that they have been allocated Office International des Epizooties (OIE) List A status. Culicoides are world players in the epidemiology of many important arboviral diseases. In this context this paper deals with those aspects of midge biology facilitating disease transmission, describes the factors controlling insect-virus interactions at the individual insect and population level, and illustrates the far-reaching effects that certain components of climate have upon the midges and, hence, transmission potential.

Animals↗