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At least 1,063 records · Page 59Linked to original sources
PubMed2004

The risks of translocating wildlife. Pathogenic infection with Theileria sp. and Elaeophora elaphi in an imported red deer.

It is well known that the translocation of wild animals poses risks of the introduction of pathogens into populations, and regulations and recommendations regarding quarantine and screening protocols for wild animals do exist. Less is known about the infection of imported animals with local endemic pathogens. A red deer stag that had been imported from Germany was found recumbent and died from hemolytic anaemia and a process of exertional myopathy. Infection with Theileria sp. was detected in thin blood smears and confirmed by PCR and sequencing. In addition, massive parasitation by Elaeophora elaphi, a parasite endemic to Iberian red deer, was detected. Sequence comparison between the 18S rRNA gene sequence determined that the Theileria strain involved in this case had a 99.7% identity with a Theileria sp. strain obtained from sika-deer, and 95.3% identity with T. cervi. Using sequence distance analysis, the strain from red deer grouped with isolates from Cervus spp. as opposed to isolates from Odocoileus spp. and bovines. Both detected parasites are of little pathogenicity to local red deer, but were pathogenic for the imported red deer from Northern Europe. This case demonstrates that local endemic pathogens may pose naive translocated animals at risk, and illustrates the need for thorough examination and planification of translocation protocols.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Impact of polymorphisms in the DC-SIGNR neck domain on the interaction with pathogens.

The lectins DC-SIGN and DC-SIGNR augment infection by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), Ebolavirus (EBOV) and other pathogens. The neck domain of these proteins drives multimerization, which is believed to be required for efficient recognition of multivalent ligands. The neck domain of DC-SIGN consists of seven sequence repeats with rare variations. In contrast, the DC-SIGNR neck domain is polymorphic and, in addition to the wild type (wt) allele with seven repeat units, allelic forms with five and six sequence repeats are frequently found. A potential association of the DC-SIGNR genotype and risk of HIV-1 infection is currently under debate. Therefore, we investigated if DC-SIGNR alleles with five and six repeat units exhibit defects in pathogen capture. Here, we show that wt DC-SIGNR and patient derived alleles with five and six repeats bind viral glycoproteins, augment viral infection and tetramerize with comparable efficiency. Moreover, coexpression of wt DC-SIGNR and alleles with five repeats did not decrease the interaction with pathogens compared to expression of each allele alone, suggesting that potential formation of hetero-oligomers does not appreciably reduce pathogen binding, at least under conditions of high expression. Thus, our results do not provide evidence for diminished pathogen capture by DC-SIGNR alleles with five and six repeat units. Albeit, we cannot exclude that subtle, but in vivo relevant differences remained undetected, our analysis suggests that indirect mechanisms could account for the association of polymorphisms in the DC-SIGNR neck region with reduced risk of HIV-1 infection.

Cell Adhesion Molecules↗
PubMed2005

Effects of cortisol and stress on channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) pathogen susceptibility and lysozyme activity following exposure to Edwardsiella ictaluri.

Periods of stress are often associated with disease outbreaks in cultured fish, and stress is often characterized by the secretion of cortisol. Although stress and cortisol secretion are highly correlated in fish, the role of cortisol in affecting channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) pathogen susceptibility is unclear. The effects of short-term stress and exogenous cortisol administration on channel catfish susceptibility to Edwardsiella ictaluri, the etiologic agent of enteric septicemia of catfish (ESC), were investigated. Channel catfish were exposed to virulent E. ictaluri following a standardized 30-min low-water stress or administration of dietary cortisol (100 mg/kg feed) and compared to a pathogen-challenged control group of catfish. Pathogen susceptibility increased in stressed catfish (43.3% mortality) when compared to cortisol-fed catfish (26.7%) and controls (26.7%). A greater (P<0.05) percentage of stressed catfish (25.9%) tested positive for E. ictaluri relative to cortisol-fed catfish (13.0%) over the course of the study, however, average levels of circulating bacteria were not different (P>0.05) among the treatments. Catfish challenged by the low-water stress event had elevated (P<0.05) circulating levels of cortisol 1-day post-pathogen exposure and elevated (P<0.05) lysozyme activity 4 and 14 days post-pathogen exposure when compared to cortisol-fed and control-challenged catfish. Cortisol concentrations were not correlated (P>0.05) to either lysozyme activity or bacterial levels; however, lysozyme activity was positively correlated (P=0.0197) to blood bacterial concentrations. These results implicate other stress factors or pathways, separate from or possibly in conjunction with cortisol, in the stress-associated immunosuppression of channel catfish as it relates to ESC susceptibility.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Vaginal pH as a marker for bacterial pathogens and menopausal status.

OBJECTIVE: Our purpose was to confirm the elevation of vaginal pH expected in patients with bacterial pathogens in premenopausal women and to examine the relationship of serum follicle-stimulating hormone and estradiol levels to vaginal pH in menopausal patients without and with hormone replacement therapy. STUDY DESIGN: Vaginal pH was determined by phenaphthazine (Nitrazine) pH paper in 253 patients seen in a solo private practice for routine speculum examination. None of the patients were pregnant. Measurements were made of serum levels of follicle-stimulating hormone and estradiol for 172 patients and vaginal cultures were taken from 82 patients. Vaginal pH was correlated with vaginal cultures and serum follicle-stimulating hormone and estradiol levels by use of statistical analysis. RESULTS: Vaginal pH was elevated in all premenopausal patients with documented bacterial pathogens. Serum estradiol levels showed an inverse and serum follicle-stimulating hormone levels a direct statistical correlation with vaginal pH in menopausal patients. CONCLUSIONS: Measurement of vaginal pH is useful, effective, and inexpensive for screening purposes. A vaginal pH of 4.5 is consistent with a premenopausal serum estradiol level and the absence of bacterial pathogens. An elevated vaginal pH in the 5.0 to 6.5 range suggests a diagnosis of either bacterial pathogens or decreased serum estradiol. In patients with an elevated pH, vaginal culture should establish the diagnosis. In the absence of bacterial pathogens, a vaginal pH of 6.0 to 7.5 is strongly suggestive of menopause. Titration of estradiol level by vaginal pH during estrogen replacement therapy may help menopausal women avoid side effects or cessation of therapy.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Nuclear factor-kappa B activation and innate immune response in microbial pathogen infection.

Human pathogenic microorganisms have developed a variety of strategies to infect the host organism successfully, whereas the host has evolved a series of defense mechanisms. In most cases, the epithelial cell layer represents the first barrier for the bacterial pathogen and triggers the innate and inflammatory responses in the host. Epithelial cells release proinflammatory mediators including cytokines and chemokines, leading to the subsequent attraction of monocytes/macrophages. Therefore, epithelial cells represent an immediate-early warning system in the host organism. Subsequent to the colonization of the epithelial layer, invasive microbial pathogens often induce an acute inflammatory response, which functions to activate residential macrophages and recruits blood leukocytes to the site of infection. Distinct receptors of the Toll family on the cell surface of immune cells mediate antibacterial responses in mammals as well as in Drosophila. One of the most important cellular factors involved in the regulation of the host innate antimicrobial response is the immediate-early response transcription factor nuclear factor (NF)-kappa B. Microbial pathogens activate cellular signal transduction pathways that induce NF-kappa B activation, but pathogens also find ways to overcome the innate immune response through active manipulation of the NF-kappa B signal transduction pathways. Exploration of the mechanisms that influence NF-kappa B activity could contribute to a better understanding of the molecular pathogenesis of microbial infections and could be important for potential therapeutic intervention that may be relevant in a wide variety of inflammatory diseases.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

"Multivalent" saccharides: development of new approaches for inhibiting the effects of glycosphingolipid-binding pathogens.

A number of diseases are initiated by the adherence of viruses, bacteria, or bacterial toxins to cell surface carbohydrates, a number of which are components of glycosphingolipids (GSLs). Studies of the binding of lectins indicated that many adhered weakly to monomeric carbohydrate ligands. The seminal observation that lectins adhered more strongly to a ligand with multiple carbohydrate binding sites initiated a plethora of studies designed to identify effective "multivalent" carbohydrate ligands for pathogens expressing multiple carbohydrate-binding sites. In addition to more completely defining ligand specificity of the carbohydrate-binding pathogen, identification of "multivalent" carbohydrate ligands has led to studies of their efficacy as pathogen inhibitors. This commentary focuses on pathogens that recognize the carbohydrate portion of GSLs. Because many GSL-binding pathogens have been shown to bind "multivalent" saccharides, approaches for identifying and preparing them as well as methods for characterizing their effectiveness as ligands are reviewed. Also discussed are areas of promise that should be investigated and pitfalls that might be encountered in the development of "multivalent" saccharides as pharmacologic agents.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Micro-evolution and emergence of pathogens.

Changes in the epidemiology of infectious diseases are the direct result of ecological and evolutionary changes in hosts and parasites. Precisely what the causal processes are is rarely known in any particular case, and this hinders the design of appropriate control strategies. This is particularly so for emerging infections, as opportunity is rapidly lost to study the ecological parameters which might have affected initial emergence. However, molecular evolutionary studies of the pathogens can yield data which discriminate between possible causes. The current distribution of DNA sequence variation is important information which may reveal past and current changes in pathogen population structures, and can also identify adaptive changes in pathogen genes which have affected their evolution. Such studies have been quite intensively performed on particular viral and bacterial pathogens, and some of the successes of these are noted here. Approaches to understanding the recent evolution of eukaryotic pathogens are outlined, with particular reference to current problems of emerging zoonoses, and changes in virulence and drug resistance.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Serum antibody levels against select bacterial pathogens in Atlantic bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncatus, from Beaufort NC USA and Charleston Harbor, Charleston, SC, USA.

Concern over the emergence of zoonotic diseases in marine organisms is growing. In response to this concern, this study set out to measure antibody activities against bacterial pathogens in Atlantic bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncatus, from the coastal estuaries of NC and SC, USA. Individuals from Charleston SC harbor, a heavily industrialized shipping harbor estuary, and from Beaufort NC, a non-shipping estuary, were examined. Purified IgG was obtained from pooled sera using ammonium sulfate precipitation steps and protein-G procedures, which was then used to generate a panel of IgG-specific monoclonal antibodies. Two of these antibodies, mAbs BB-10-2 (IgG1) and BB-32-2 (IgG2b), were then used to determine total serum IgG concentrations using a sandwich capture ELISA. Circulating IgG levels were variable between individuals and between the two pods. MAb BB-10-2 was then used in an indirect ELISA to determine serum antibody activities against several common marine bacteria as well as the human pathogens E. coli and E. coli strain 0157:H7, Vibrio parahemolyticus, V. vulnificus, V. cholerae, Mycobacteria marinum, M. fortuitum, and M. chelonae. The highest antibody activities were against mycobacteria, two of which are zoonotic pathogens. Males had the highest antibody activities, thus suggesting low cell-mediated immunity against intracellular pathogens in these individuals. T-cell proliferation in response to Con-A, an indicator of cell-mediated immune function, was then measured in the Beaufort population. Males had the lowest proliferation responses, however a negative correlation between antibody activities and T-cell proliferation in individuals could not be established for either of the Mycobacteria species. Overall, antibody activities against all bacteria, including innocuous species such as V. anguillarum, V. natrigens, and M. xenopi were highly variable between individual dolphins and the two pods, with some animals exhibiting very high activities. These studies suggests that dolphin populations should be monitored by following the health and seroprevalence of pathogens of interest in select individual animals over time.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The innate and early immune response to pathogen challenge in the female genital tract and the pivotal role of epithelial cells.

The female reproductive tract is immunologically unique in its requirement for tolerance to allogeneic sperm and, in the upper tract, to the conceptus. However, it must also be appropriately protected from, and respond to, a diverse array of sexually transmitted pathogens. Some of these infections can be lethal (e.g. Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), Human Papilloma Virus (HPV)), and others (e.g. Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae) can have potentially devastating reproductive sequelae. Interactions between a host and a pathogen are complex, diverse and regulated, and are a function of the individual pathogen, and host immunity. Although there is undoubtedly commonality in the mucosal immune response, there is also evidence of a degree of site-specificity in immune mechanisms, dependent upon the function and anatomical location of an organ. In this article, we review the evidence on the pivotal role of epithelial cells in the innate and early immune response to pathogen challenge in female genital tract tissues, and examine the evidence that the 'sterile' upper and the 'non-sterile' lower female genital tract may maintain a different immunological surveillance milieu, and may also respond differentially to pathogen challenge. We also review the unique characteristics, and subsequent ramifications of the acute cervical immune response to C. trachomatis, and discuss how natural antimicrobial mediators of immunity may be utilized to decrease the spread of sexually transmitted infections.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Acute mastoiditis in children: Pseudomonas aeruginosa as a leading pathogen.

OBJECTIVE: Acute mastoiditis is a serious bacterial infection of the temporal bone and is the most common complication of otitis media. The goal of this study is to assess the clinical features, pathogens, management, and outcome of acute mastoiditis in children in northern Israel. METHODS: A systematic review of medical records of all children who were admitted with acute mastoiditis from January 1990 through December 2000. RESULTS: Fifty-seven children were included. Median was age: 36 months. In 26 patients (45.6%) mastoiditis complicated the first episode of acute otitis media (AOM). Twenty-five children (44%) received antibiotic treatment prior to admission. Frequent symptoms included mastoid area erythema in 54 children (94.7%), proptosis of the auricle in 52 children (91.2%) and fever in 43 children (75.4%). Middle ear, and subperiostal culture yielded growth of pathogen in 30 children (75%), two cultures yielded more then one pathogen. The most frequent pathogens were: Pseudomonas aeruginosa in 10 children (25%), Streptococcus pneumoniae in eight children (20%), Group A streptococcus in six children (15%). The highest incidence of Streptococcus pneumoniae was found in children who did not suffer from AOM before admission (35 vs. 5%). Fifty-two (91.2%) children were cured with antibiotic treatment alone. Seventeen children underwent computed tomography (CT) of the mastoid. Mastoid bone destruction was demonstrated in six children and subperiostal abscess in eight. Mastoidectomy was performed in five children. CONCLUSIONS: The diagnosis of acute mastoiditis can be made on clinical basis alone requiring CT only when complications are suspected. Half of the children admitted with acute mastoiditis had no previous history of recurrent AOM. In those children S. pneumoniae was the leading pathogen while P. aeruginosa was more prevalent in children with recurrent AOM. Most of the children recovered with medical therapy alone, without surgical intervention.

Acute Disease↗
PubMed2003

Detection of bacterial pathogens in environmental samples using DNA microarrays.

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is an important tool for pathogen detection, but historically, it has not been possible to accurately identify PCR products without sequencing, Southern blots, or dot-blots. Microarrays can be coupled with PCR where they serve as a set of parallel dot-blots to enhance product detection and identification. Microarrays are composed of many discretely located probes on a solid substrate such as glass. Each probe is composed of a sequence that is complimentary to a pathogen-specific gene sequence. PCR is used to amplify one or more genes and the products are then hybridized to the array to identify species-specific polymorphism within one or more genes. We illustrate this type of array using 16S rDNA probes suitable for distinguishing between several salmonid pathogens. We also describe the use of microarrays for direct detection of either RNA or DNA without the aid of PCR, although the sensitivity of these systems currently limits their application for pathogen detection. Finally, microarrays can also be used to "fingerprint" bacterial isolates and they can be used to identify diagnostic markers suitable for developing new PCR-based detection assays. We illustrate this type of array for subtyping an important food-borne pathogen, Listeria monocytogenes.

Actinomycetales Infections↗
PubMed1999

Evaluation of methodologies including immunofluorescent assay (IFA) and the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for detection of human pathogenic microsporidia in water.

Microsporidia is a term used to describe a group of emerging protozoan pathogens whose environmental occurrence has only recently been documented due to lack of detection methodologies. This study evaluates and describes current methods for detection of microsporidia in water. Standard methods, for the collection and processing of large volumes of water to detect protozoa, showed only a 4.8% recovery, of microsporidia spores, from 100 l volumes of tap. Immunofluorescent assay (IFA) analysis was assessed using two different antibodies specific for human pathogenic microsporidia. Results indicated that the use of IFA for routine screening of water for microsporidia was not an acceptable approach. The antibodies tested for the IFA resulted in false positives and false negatives and did not react with Enterocytozoon bieneusi, which is an important human pathogenic microsporidia. Finally, the small sizes of the human pathogenic microsporidia prevent confirmation and species determination by light microscopic methods. Two methods for isolating microsporidia DNA from water for use in polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of microsporidia target sequences were assessed. Both of these DNA isolation methods when combined with the PCR showed the ability to detect less than ten spores in purified water concentrates. Thus, this study represents the first documentation and evaluation of current methods for the detection of human pathogenic microsporidia in water.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Considering uncertainty in comparing the burden of illness due to foodborne microbial pathogens.

The uncertainty attendant to burden-of-illness estimates should be taken into account in comparing the public health impact of different foodborne pathogens. In this paper, decision analysis concepts are applied to the comparisons of pathogen-specific burden-of-illness estimates. In situations wherein the magnitude of uncertainty varies, the rank order of pathogen-specific burden-of-illness estimates is sensitive to the decisional criteria applied. To illustrate the magnitude of attendant uncertainty in pathogen-specific foodborne-illness estimates, probabilistic risk assessment methods are used to characterize the uncertainty regarding the burden of illness due to Escherichia coli O157:H7. The magnitude of uncertainty about the burden of food-related illness due to E. coli O157:H7 is substantial, ranging from less than 50,000 to more than 120,000 cases/year. This example underscores the importance of considering the uncertainty attendant to burden-of-illness estimates in comparing the public health impacts of different pathogens. Although some would argue that the expected value of the number of illnesses provides the "best estimate" for decision-making, this merely reflects a decision-making rule of convention and not a scientific truism.

Decision Trees↗
PubMed2004

Recontamination as a source of pathogens in processed foods.

Food products that have been submitted to an adequate heat-treatment during processing are free of vegetative pathogens and, depending on the treatments, of sporeformers and are generally regarded as safe. Processed products such as pâté, ice cream, infant formulae and others have nevertheless been responsible for food-borne illnesses. Thorough epidemiological investigations of several of these outbreaks have demonstrated that the presence of vegetative pathogens such as Salmonella spp. or Listeria monocytogenes in the consumed products was frequently due to post-process recontamination. The majority of studies on pathogens in foods are devoted to investigations on their presence in raw materials or on their growth and behaviour in the finished products. Reference to recontamination is, however, only made in relatively few publications and very little is published on the sources and routes of these pathogens into products after the final lethal processing step. The investigation of an outbreak, including epidemiological studies and typing of strains, is very useful to trace the origin and source of the hazard. Published data demonstrate that the presence of pathogens in the vicinity of unprotected product in processing lines represents a significant risk of recontamination. Microbiological Risk Assessment studies can be conducted as part of governmental activities determining appropriate protection levels for populations. Although recontamination has been identified as a relevant cause of food incidences, it is often not considered in such studies. This paper advocates that an effort should be made to develop our knowledge and information on recontamination further and start using it systematically in the exposure assessment part of Microbiological Risk Assessment studies.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

A Blumeria graminis gene family encoding proteins with a C-terminal variable region with homologues in pathogenic fungi.

In a study aimed at characterising, at the molecular level, the obligate biotrophic fungus Blumeria graminis f. sp. hordei (Bgh), we have identified a novel group of genes, the Egh16H genes, and shown that two of these are up-regulated during primary infection of barley leaves. The genes have partial homology to a previously characterised Bgh gene family, Egh16. Egh16 and Egh16H are subfamilies of a larger multigene family with presently about 15 members identified in Bgh. Egh16H has about ten members, and we show that five of these are expressed as highly conserved mRNAs that are predicted to encode proteins with a C-terminal variable region. Egh16H has high homology to sequences in Magnaporthe grisea and other plant pathogenic fungi, as well as sequences of both the insect pathogen Metarhizium anisopliae and the human pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus. No close homologues of Egh16H were found in the non-pathogenic fungi Neurospora crassa and Aspergillus nidulans. We predict that Egh16H plays a general role in the interaction between pathogenic fungi and their hosts. At present, the large number of gene family members with C-terminal variation appears to be unique for Bgh, and the Egh16/Egh16H gene family is to our knowledge the largest gene family so far characterised in this fungus.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2003

Onset and duration of fecal shedding, cell-mediated and humoral immune responses in pigs after challenge with a pathogenic isolate or attenuated vaccine strain of Lawsonia intracellularis.

Little is known about the humoral and, especially, cell-mediated immune response in pigs exposed to Lawsonia intracellularis. The objectives of this study were to investigate the onset and duration of fecal shedding, cell-mediated and humoral immune responses in pigs after challenge with a pathogenic isolate or a commercial live vaccine strain of L. intracellularis. Twenty-four 5-week-old pigs were exposed to 4.4x10(9) organisms of a pathogenic L. intracellularis isolate PHE/MN1-00 (10 pigs), a L. intracellularis live attenuated vaccine strain (10 pigs) or sham inoculum (4 pigs). Fecal, serum and whole blood samples were collected from all animals before exposure and weekly up to 13 weeks post inoculation and tested by PCR, immunoperoxidase monolayer assay serology and an interferon-gamma assay, respectively. One animal from each group was euthanized on day 22 post exposure to confirm infection. Humoral and cell-mediated immune responses were initially detected 2 weeks after exposure in pigs challenged with the pathogenic isolate, and 5 and 4 weeks, respectively, in pigs exposed to the modified-live vaccine group. Humoral and cell-mediated immune responses were still detected in some pigs from both L. intracellularis exposed groups 13 weeks after exposure. Fecal shedding was initially detected 1 week and lasted, intermittently, 12 weeks post exposure in pigs challenged with the pathogenic isolate, while fecal shedding was first detected 2 weeks and lasted, also intermittently, 9 weeks after exposure to the vaccine. In summary, both pathogenic isolate challenged and vaccine exposed pigs demonstrated long-term shedding of and immune responses to L. intracellularis.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Susceptibility patterns of orally administered antimicrobials among urinary tract infection pathogens from hospitalized patients in North America: comparison report to Europe and Latin America. Results from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (2000).

Urinary tract infections (UTIs) remain a worldwide nosocomial infection problem. Geographic variations in pathogen occurrence and susceptibility profiles require monitoring to provide information to guide new (garenoxacin [BMS284756]) therapeutic options. Two thousand seven hundred-eighty UTI isolates from Europe (n = 783), Latin America (531), and North America (1,466) were tested and compared against 44 agents by reference methods in the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program. The top seven pathogens accounted for 90% of all isolates and the rank order for all regions was: Escherichia coli (1,316; 47%), Enterococcus spp. (351; 13%), Klebsiella spp. (306; 11%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (210; 8%), Proteus mirabilis (145; 5%), Enterobacter spp. (97; 4%), and Citrobacter spp. (78; 3%). The pathogen rank order was similar among regions except for the rarer occurrence of Enterococcus spp. (Rank #6, 4%) in Latin America. E. coli ampicillin resistance was highest in Europe and Latin America (51-55%). Ampicillin (37%), ciprofloxacin or garenoxacin (4%), and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (23%) resistance remained lowest in North America. Nitrofurantoin susceptibility in E. coli was still at acceptable levels and ranged from 91 to 96% across regions. The regional ciprofloxacin-resistant rank order for P. aeruginosa by region was: Latin America (55%) > Europe (41%) > North America (29%). Vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) were only detected in North America (7%). Garenoxacin possessed a 34 to 44% wider spectrum compared to ciprofloxacin against enterococci UTI isolates. Extended spectrum beta-lactamase rates for E. coli and Klebsiella spp. were 4 and 19%, respectively. These results emphasized the need to assess the often striking differences in pathogen occurrence and resistance rates among the commonly encountered UTI pathogens.

Administration, Oral↗
PubMed2000

How the host 'sees' pathogens: global gene expression responses to infection.

Innate immune responses to pathogens are believed to be patterned and stereotyped. Adaptive responses display variety but in relatively few types of products and with limited numbers of mechanisms. Is this apparent disparity between microbial pathogen diversity and a restricted set of host responses an accurate picture of infection or is it the result of a limited collection of analytic tools? DNA microarray technology permits one to address simple descriptive questions about global gene expression inside cells. In particular, it offers an opportunity to examine the relationship between host and pathogen in much greater detail than has been possible previously. One can now ask, firstly, how a host cell or organism 'sees' a microbial pathogen from the viewpoint of gene expression responses and, secondly, at what level it is able to discriminate between different agents. Other potential insights to be reaped include the identification of microbial determinants of the host response, the temporal features of the 'conversation' between host and pathogen, novel strategies for therapeutic and prophylactic intervention and prognostic markers of outcome.

Animals↗