[Protection from competition in public health law. Decision of the Federal Social Court 28 August 1996 (6 RKa 37/95)].
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Economic Competition↗
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Towards a method for assessing social support systems.
Man is committed by his biological and cultural evolution to a social existence. While the social environment is the source of many stressors, it may also be protective. This latter function is called 'support'. Social bonds are to be found universally, but some cultural groups have the integrity of these bonds conspicuously endangered. The application of the affective component of the social network to psychiatry promises to be useful, but cannot progress further until an instrument is developed for assessing the support available to an individual. We have gone some way towards a method for assessing the components of primary group interaction. The task now is to determine if low social support, such as is seen in Western suburban wives, some migrant groups and some women in the Middle East and Asia, is causally related to some psychiatric disorders The principal appeal of this area is that we may be tapping something very fundamental about human social organisation, something which, unlike adversity, is subject to modification.
Community Psychiatry↗
Social networks and social support: an overview of research, practice, and policy implications.
Following a brief overview of the stressful life events-illness model and its implications for intervention, this article highlights the role of social support as a resource for resisting stress-induced illness and disability. It identifies three different connotative meanings that have been assigned to the social support construct, and describes their empirical operationalizations in several recent studies. Specifically, the social integration/participation formulation, the social network approach, and the social intimacy measurement strategy are described and contrasted. Within the latter approach, one study that illuminated types of informal helping behaviors is discussed in greater detail. A review of possible mechanisms whereby social support accomplishes its health-protective impact is also offered, and two types of planned interventions involving the mobilization or optimization of social support are spotlighted. The article concludes with ideas about ways that professionals can safeguard the natural helping skills of citizens and achieve an appropriate balance between formal and informal systems of service delivery in the health and human services fields.
Adaptation, Psychological↗
Use of discretionary protective equipment in high school athletes: prevalence and determinants.
OBJECTIVES: We sought to describe the use of discretionary protective equipment among high school athletes and to examine social and behavioral determinants contributing to equipment usage. METHODS: We analyzed data from a 3-year (1996-1999), stratified, 2-stage cluster sample of athletes engaged in 12 organized sports in 100 North Carolina high schools (n=19728 athlete-seasons) (an athlete-season represents an individual student who participates in a particular sport in a particular season). We used generalized logistic regression to model the association of social and behavioral determinants and demographic variables with discretionary protective equipment use. RESULTS: About one third of high school athletes self-reported using lower extremity discretionary protective equipment. Girls, seniors, those who played limited-contact sports, and those who played multiple sports reported higher usage. Small school size, low player/coach ratio, high proportion of team usage, and history of previous lower extremity injury were important predictors of usage. Coaches' experience, qualifications, and training, however, were not predictive of usage. CONCLUSIONS: Intervention efforts to promote use of discretionary protective equipment need to target school-level factors and should consider both team requirements and the role of peers in setting and reinforcing norms.
Adolescent↗
Fear-relevant selective associations and social anxiety: absence of a positive bias.
An illusory correlation paradigm was used to compare high and low socially anxious individuals' initial, on-line and a posteriori covariation estimates between emotional faces and aversive, pleasant and neutral outcomes. Overall, participants demonstrated an initial expectancy bias for aversive outcomes following angry faces, and pleasant outcomes following happy faces. On-line expectancy biases indicated that initial biases were extinguished during the task, with the exception of low socially anxious individuals who continued to over-associate positive social cues with pleasant outcomes. In addition to lacking this protective positive on-line bias, the high social anxiety group reported retrospectively more negative social cues than the low socially anxious group. Findings are discussed in relation to similar evidence from recent interpretive and memory paradigms.
Adolescent↗
[The double system of child protection: a French original].
France has a double system of child welfare as decreed by the law of July 1989. Social welfare is under the responsibility of the Regional Council (social services, early childhood health services, and child protection services). These type of services require the family's collaboration with respect to the proposals concerning child protection: financial aid, family counseling, and placement. In case of severe danger, or if it is impossible to obtain the family's collaboration, the child's judge can order family counseling or placement. None of these measures modifies parental authority. A child in danger and the child's best interest are the two fundamental concepts which ought to guide social welfare and children's court workers in choosing the best possible protection measure.
Child↗
Dietary and metabolic effects on rhesus social behavior: protein and protein-calorie malnutrition.
Forty-seven monkeys were fed 1 of 8 diets between the ages of 1 and 7 months containing full-, half-, or quarter-strength protein or protein and calories using either casein or soy protein. While on the diet, malnourished infants were inactive both socially and nonsocially. When returned to a normal diet, previously malnourished subjects were more agonistic towards familiar peers but more friendly and less agonistic when later paired with unfamiliar monkeys. The data suggest that short periods of early severe malnutrition may protect the individual against adverse social conditions (e.g., isolation) and delay the development of normal social skills.
Aggression↗
Sex differences in the relationship between social support and risk for major depression: a longitudinal study of opposite-sex twin pairs.
OBJECTIVE: Compared to men, women have larger and more intimate social networks and higher rates of major depression. Prior studies have suggested that women are more sensitive to the depressogenic effects of low social support, but most of these studies had substantial methodologic limitations. METHOD: In two interview waves at least 1 year apart, 1,057 pairs of opposite-sex dizygotic twin pairs ascertained from a population-based register were assessed. The authors predicted risk of major depression in the year before the wave 2 interview from levels of social support assessed at wave 1. RESULTS: Women reported higher levels of global social support than their twin brothers. Global social support at wave 1 predicted risk for major depression at wave 2 significantly more strongly in female than in male members of these pairs, and the same effect was seen when the analysis controlled for the history of major depression in the year prior to wave 1. Women were more sensitive than men to the depressogenic effects of low levels of social support, particularly from the co-twin, other relatives, parents, and spouses. Levels of social support did not explain the sex difference in risk for major depression. CONCLUSIONS: Emotionally supportive social relationships are substantially more protective against major depression for women than for men. While these effects cannot explain sex effects on the prevalence of major depression, they do suggest important sex differences in pathways of risk. Clarification of the nature of the causal links between low social support and depression in women is needed.
Adult↗
Otago Women's Health Survey 30-month follow-up. I: Onset patterns of non-psychotic psychiatric disorder.
Women who showed new psychiatric morbidity after a 30-month follow-up of a random community sample of New Zealand women were compared with those who were free of psychiatric disorder at follow-up. There were 25 new cases among the 215 women who were originally not psychiatric cases and who were re-interviewed. Using the weighted back population data to obtain prevalence figures for the general population, 6.9% became new cases over the two and a half years. Those who developed psychiatric disorder initially showed more psychiatric symptoms at a subdiagnostic level. Baseline factors that preceded the onset of psychiatric disorder were being separated or divorced, coming from a large family, having poor social networks, living alone, having few social role responsibilities such as paid employment or motherhood, and having poor physical health. An additional cross-sectional association at follow-up was poor financial security. Good social networks were closely linked with the number of a woman's social roles and appeared to protect her against the onset of psychiatric disorder. Consistent with the initial cross-sectional study, the follow-up data provide no support for marriage and child-care being risk factors for female psychiatric disorder. However, in New Zealand, these factors indicate social integration and are associated with superior mental health.
Adolescent↗
Funding long-term care: applications of the trade-off principle in both public and private sectors.
The uncertain need for long-term care services is a risk best protected by insurance. However, the current funding relies heavily on personal payment and public welfare, and only lightly on social and private insurances. This method, akin to sitting on a two-legged stool, is unlikely to be sustainable. To incorporate insurance as a key component of funding and to mobilize public and private resources more effectively, we propose a three-legged-stool funding model under which social insurance would provide a basic protection, to be supplemented by private insurance and personal payment. When these sources do not provide sufficient protection for some individuals, Medicaid as public welfare would serve as a safety net. This article (a) discusses how to implement this funding model by using the trade-off principle in both the public and private sectors when resources for long-term care are scarce, and (b) analyzes several objections to this model from cognitive psychology/behavioral economics
Aged↗
Comparing perceived self-efficacy among adolescent Bosnian and Croatian refugees with and without posttraumatic stress disorder.
To examine the relationship between posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and perceived self-efficacy (PSE), 98 Bosnian and Croatian refugees, ages 13-18, completed Bandura's Children's Multidimensional Scales of Perceived Self-Efficacy, which measure self-predicted social functioning in 9 areas. Through interviews, participants were categorized according to DSM-IV criteria as traumatized PTSD-positive, traumatized PTSD-negative, and nontraumatized. ANCOVAs showed PTSD-positive participants exhibit higher PSE than nontraumatized participants in 5 of 9 areas. No significant differences among 3 female groups were observed; however, nontraumatized boys demonstrated lower PSE than the 2 traumatized groups in 7 of 9 areas. Thus, PTSD did not have a negative impact on PSE in this cultural context. Furthermore, surviving traumatic experience and preserving social support networks may be protective factors for maintaining high levels of PSE.
Adolescent↗
Investing in sustainable catchments.
Catchments constitute logical units for management of the water cycle. Patterns of development uninformed by sustainability concerns have degraded catchment integrity and associated ecosystem functions, imposing largely unquantified costs. Ecosystem functions are central to sustainable social and economic progress; their protection or restoration may be the only sustainable form of investment in catchments. Despite growing use of catchment functions in some policy areas, a shortfall in awareness and pragmatic tools limits progress with policies and practical tools to support sustainable development in catchments, perpetuating damaging practices. This paper reviews methods of economic valuation of riverine systems. Valuation of ecosystem functions is revealed as particularly pertinent to sustainable development, as an indicator of the benefits of ecological processes to social and economic progress. A range of practical projects, targeted at restoration of riverine habitat in the UK with the intent of improving both river ecology and the social and economic advantages that flow from it, is also reviewed. Emerging principles and themes are discussed in terms of their potential contribution to policies and practices that promote sustainability. Review of these projects highlights the importance of planning at adequately broad scales--spatial, temporal and disciplinary--to identify integrated solutions, and to maximise community "buy-in" and total benefits. In several cases, economic analyses demonstrate strongly positive benefit-cost ratios stemming from habitat improvement. However, major reform of regulatory and economic instruments is needed to promote sustainable catchment development, since prevalent "perverse" incentives continue to degrade ecosystem functions. Measures to recognise and reward ecosystem service as legitimate outputs from agricultural land use constitute a particular priority. There is a need simultaneously to address both "big picture" structural adjustments and locally-appropriate solutions, from which clear local benefits flow. Pragmatic measures that contribute to systemic outcomes must also be attractive to local decision-makers and land managers, and yield benefits that ensure they are sustained once intervention ceases. Cost need not be a barrier, as current environmentally-damaging subsidies may instead be redirected towards sensitive land use and/or measures to protect biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, particularly where targeted upon habitat of disproportionate importance to functioning of catchments as whole systems. Internalisation of the costs of damage to ecosystem functioning will promote valuation of the natural capital of catchments as a primary resource for social and economic progress.
Conservation of Natural Resources↗
[Psychiatric rehabilitation].
The author presents a brief account of the development of psychiatric rehabilitation during the past two centuries. He draws attention to new trends in rehabilitation of the mentally sick during the post-war period and at present. He describes the system of rehabilitation in the Soviet Union which began to develop as a results of efforts in the Bekhterev Institute in Leningrad. In our country the law on social security in 1964 created conditions for protected workshop and protected work places. In 1973 methodical instructions of the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs issued instructions which specified the principles of planning, establishment and operation of these facilities. At the end of 1986 the Ministry of Health CSR issued an amendment to the concept of psychiatry which contains the organization of psychiatric rehabilitation not only in in-patient but in particular in out-patient psychiatric facilities.
Cuba↗
Funding long-term care by applying the trade-off principle to public and private insurance.
The uncertain need for long-term care (LTC) services is a risk that is best protected by insurance. However, current LTC funding in the United States relies heavily on personal payment and public welfare and only lightly on social insurance and private insurance. This method is akin to sitting on a two-legged stool, which is likely to be unstable. This brief describes a "three-legged" funding model where social insurance would provide basic LTC protection that would be supplemented by private insurance and personal payment. The model would mobilize public and private resources more effectively by linking LTC insurance to social security, private life insurance, and other financial products.
Aging↗
Gender, social relations and mental health: prospective findings from an occupational cohort (Whitehall II study).
Gender differences in social support tend to suggest that women have larger social networks and both give and receive more support than men. Nevertheless, although social support has been identified as protective of mental health, women have higher rates of psychological distress than men. We examine the prospective association between social support and psychological distress by gender in a cohort study of middle aged British Civil Servants, the Whitehall II study. In this sample we found that women have a larger number of close persons than men although men have larger social networks. We also found that the effects of marital status, social support within and outside the workplace and social networks on subsequent occurrence of psychological distress were similar for men and women independently of baseline mental health status.
Adult↗
Understanding shame in adults: retrospective perceptions of parental-bonding during childhood.
The association between perceptions of parental-bonding style during childhood and moral affect of shame at young adulthood were examined with 264 women and 140 men (mean age [+/- SD] = 20.4 +/- 1.6 years old). Shame affect was significantly positively related to fear of negative evaluation by others and social avoidance, and negatively related to recalled parental care in one's childhood. Multiple regression analyses indicated that maternal protectiveness, paternal care, fear of negative social evaluation, and social avoidance were significant predictors of shame, explaining 41% of the variance. Results support object relations theory, which states that shame is a moral affect associated with social evaluation apprehension and may have developmental implications for one's parental relations.
Adolescent↗
[Forms of taking care of a mother and a child in Warsaw on the pages of Polish monthly "Opiekun Społeczny" published from 1936 to 1939].
The issue of care of a mother and a child appeared to be nothing new during the period of II Rzeczpospolita. It used to be one of the most vital problems of social policy of the country. It was the local governments, gmina. poviat's unions as well as the voivodship. Social Security Committees responsibility to protect motherhood and care for children imposed on them by the 16th August 1923 act. The regulation of Department of Public Health the city of Warsaw from 1929 stated in the 1st and that aforementioned care included: "sanitary, medical and nursery care provided by Department of Public Health information bureaus or the social institutions subsided by the magistrat and authorized by it". "Opiekun Społeczny" as the monthly having dealt with the social policy issues in the capital city, in detail discussed certain problems of social and health care for a family, explained the valid legislation and informed about the new Health Department acts. The magazine was above all addressed to Health Department workers and social workers. The issue of care for a mother and a child used to be the leading subject-matter of the magazine since the beginnings of its existence. It was numerously pointed out that taking care for motherhood and a baby, a child at pre-school and school age and the youth is the main job of the care department. The material and moral relief used to be lead by the social workers. As far as the legal assistance is concerned, it was the special information bureaus workers' organized by Zarzad Miejski and "Osiedle" committee responsibility to help mothers in need. One of the most essential problems on one hand and the most difficult on the other faced by the capital city welfare was the problem of illegitimate children, especially the abandoned ones constituting a numerous group. The welfare's aim was to decrease their number and improve their living conditions. The main principle was to make each mother to raise her child on her own. That is why the abandoned children places were reorganized and transformed into the mother and child homes. A new institution was also created--it was the care for abandoned mothers existing near the workplaces. It were the principles then to create conditions efficient enough for the mother to live on her own. The material and legal relief was provided as well as mothers were helped in finding job. Taking care for a mother and her child used to be the field of social institutions. There were various social organizations such as Polish Care for a Child Committee, Polish Drop of Milk Society, Polish Society for Alcoholism Fight and so forth. It was their main aim to help mothers and children in poor living conditions.
Child↗
[Nutrition and development].
Discussions on development and nutrition frequently have a double focus: one that considers nutritional status as a reflection of development, and another that admits that nutrition strongly influences the level and rhythm of development. The authors view nutrition as a decisive factor for adequate social and economic development, specifying the fact that nutritional interventions might contribute to significant improvements in individual classroom performance, productivity at the workplace, and resistance to infections. The implications of malnutrition for the economy are thus evident: either by limitations in income expectations, increased costs deriving from burdens assumed by the population to protect themselves, or considerable hidden social costs--absenteeism, work accidents, and rotation of employees. Given modernization and a competitive economy, there is an unquestionable need for nutrition to head the agenda of national priorities, thus promoting human resource development and the preservation of this human capital, one of the chief goals of a socially responsible economy.
English Abstract↗