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PubMed1999

Susceptibility of oral Candida species to calcium hydroxide in vitro.

AIM: The susceptibility of common oral Candida species to saturated aqueous calcium hydroxide solution was studied. METHODOLOGY: The yeast species tested were C. albicans (16 strains). C. glabrata (three strains), C. guilliermondii (three strains), C. krusei (two strains), and C. tropicalis (two strains). At least one reference strain of each species was used; the others were clinical isolates either from persistent apical periodontitis or from marginal periodontitis. The susceptibility of Enterococcus faecalis (ATCC 29212) was studied for comparative purposes. Standardized inocula of the strains were incubated in aqueous calcium hydroxide solution, pH 12.4, for time-periods ranging from 5 min to 6 h. Volumes of 0.1 mL of the test suspension were cultured directly on Brucella blood agar and incubated in air at 37C. The plates were inspected for growth at 24 and 48 h and the colonies were counted. The time required to reduce the number of colony-forming units to less than 0.1% of the initial number was determined for each strain. RESULTS: The sensitivity of the C. albicans strains was generally low, with 16 h of incubation required to kill 99.9% of the colony-forming units. No differences in susceptibility between C. albicans strains isolated from root-canal infections and from periodontitis were found. Both strains of C. tropicalis were killed between 3 and 6 h of incubation, whilst strains of C. guilliermondii were killed after only 1020 min of incubation. All strains of C. glabrata survived 20 min, but not 1 h, of incubation, whilst 13 h were required to kill C. krusei. Compared with E. faecalis, all Candida spp. showed either equally high or higher resistance to aqueous calcium hydroxide. CONCLUSIONS: This study indicates that Candida spp. are resistant to calcium hydroxide in vitro, which may explain the isolation of yeasts from cases of persistent apical periodontitis.

Calcium Hydroxide↗
PubMed1992

DAP-decarboxylase activity and lysine production by rumen bacteria.

The last step of pathway of lysine biosynthesis by rumen bacteria was tested. The first measurements of DAP-decarboxylase activity and of lysine production by Megasphera elsdenii, Selenomonas ruminantium, Clostridium spp., Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens and Bacteroides succinogenes as well as the first attempts to increase the lysine production by ruminal streptococci by mutation are described. The highest values were measured in Selenomonas ruminantium (DAP-decarboxylase activity = 146 micrograms DAP.min-1.mg-1 protein and lysine production was 390 micrograms.mg-1 protein) and the lowest values were ascertained in Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens (DAP-decarboxylase activity = 27 micrograms DAP.min-1.mg-1 protein and lysine production was 32 micrograms.mg-1 protein). DAP-decarboxylase activity was increased by mutation especially in Streptococcus bovis, the lysine production in both of tested ruminal streptococci. The potential use of lysine-excreting mutants in calves in future is suggested.

Animals↗
PubMed1985

Survival and detection of Bacteroides spp., prospective indicator bacteria.

Preliminary experiments were performed to assess the use of intestinal Bacteroides spp. as indicators of fecal contamination of water. Viable counts of Bacteroides fragilis, an anaerobic bacterium, declined more rapidly than those of Escherichia coli and Streptococcus faecalis. However, a fluorescent antiserum prepared against B. fragilis successfully detected high proportions (18 to greater than 50%) of B. fragilis cells suspended for 8 days in aerobic water in dialysis bags at the ambient temperature. These percentages were higher than the percent viable recoveries of the two indicator bacteria used for comparison. Thus, the fluorescent antiserum test for B. fragilis might serve as a useful indicator of fecal contamination of water. An advantage of this approach over coliform analysis is the rapidity at which the test can be performed.

Bacteriological Techniques↗
PubMed1978

Iron requirement and chelator production of staphylococci, Streptococcus faecalis and enterobacteriaceae.

The effect of iron deprivation on growth of 101 aerobic strains of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria was studied on agar media in the presence of various concentrations of the synthetic iron chelator ethylene diamine diorthohydroxyphenyl acetic acid (EDDA) and the iron binding protein transferrin. Growth of Staphylococcus epidermidis was inhibited by 15 mM EDDA and 1.5 mM transferrin. Staphylococcus aureus was only inhibited by 44 mM EDDA and not by transferrin. None of the strains of S. faecalis was inhibited. The majority of the enterobacteriaceae (E. coli, Salmonella spp, Klebsiella spp) was inhibited by 44 mM EDDA and 1.5 mM transferrin. The relation between susceptibility and concentration of EDDA and transferrin was expressed as S-value for each species. Iron supply with various iron compounds could restore the effects of inhibition. In all species except in S. faecalis iron chelator production could be demonstrated, using indicator plates of media containing EDDA and flooded with 10(4)--10(5) colony forming units of indicator organisms. The iron chelator of both S. epidermidis and S. aureus could stimulate growth of S. epidermidis, but not that of enterobacteriaceae. Iron chelators from all gram-negative bacteria were functionally interchangeable, but did not stimulate growth of gram-positive bacteria.

Chelating Agents↗
PubMed1989

Bactericidal and bacteriolytic action of peptide antibiotic AS-48 against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria and other organisms.

A purified peptide antibiotic AS-48 from Streptococcus faecalis spp liquiefaciens S-48 exerted a bactericidal mode of action against most Gram-positive and many Gram-negative bacteria tested. In many Gram-positive bacteria and the two Myxococcus species assayed, a bacteriolytic effect, as a consequence of primary lesions, was also observed. In general, the Gram-negative bacteria were more resistant to AS-48. Escherichia coli protoplasts showed increased sensitivity and those of a resistant yeast. Saccharomyces cerevisiae 3.2, became sensitive. These data suggest that resistance is related to the cell wall structure. AS-48 adsorbed rapidly to cell walls and cytoplasmic membranes of sensitive and resistant cells. Adsorption to cytoplasmic membranes involved complete neutralization of AS-48.

Adsorption↗
PubMed1999

Prevalence of aminoglycoside resistance in 20 European university hospitals participating in the European SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Programme.

The aim of this study was to analyse the current prevalence of aminoglycoside resistance in Europe and compare the in vitro activity of amikacin, gentamicin, and tobramycin against 7057 bacterial isolates from 20 university hospitals participating in the European SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Programme. Amikacin exhibited better in vitro activity than tobramycin and gentamicin against most gram-negative bacilli in Europe. The resistance levels were 0.4-3% for amikacin, 2-13.1% for gentamicin, and 2.5-15.3% for tobramycin among different members of the family Enterobacteriaceae. Of the Staphylococcus aureus isolates tested, 75% were susceptible to gentamicin. Only 21% of all enterococcal strains tested were fully susceptible to gentamicin. Although intra-country variations in the prevalence of resistance phenotypes in Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp., and Pseudomonas aeruginosa as well as in staphylococci and enterococci did occur, aminoglycoside resistance rates were generally higher in Italy, Portugal, Spain, Greece, France, the UK, and Poland than in Austria, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. Compared with the 1987-88 data of the European Study Group on Antibiotic Resistance, gentamicin resistance has increased up to 5% in some gram-negative bacterial species. Furthermore, a greater than 10% increase in resistance to gentamicin has been seen in Staphylococcus aureus during the last decade. The reason for this observation is unclear, although changes in antibiotic prescribing patterns that result in increased selective pressure from gentamicin may have contributed to these increased rates of aminoglycoside resistance.

Amikacin↗
PubMed1973

Cefoxitin, a new semi-synthetic cephamycin: an in-vitro and in-vivo comparison with cephalothin.

The activity of cefoxitin was compared with that of cephalothin against 229 bacterial strains. Cefoxitin was more active against most Gram-negative strains, notably against indole-producing Proteus spp., which are usually resistant to the cephalosporins. Cefoxitin was not susceptible to any significant extent to degradation by beta-lactamases produced by Gram-negative organisms. Against Gram-positive organisms, however, cefoxitin was considerably less active than cephalothin, but minimum inhibitory concentrations for Staphylococcus aureus were well within therapeutically attainable blood levels.Pharmacokinetic studies in 18 volunteers showed a higher and longer sustained antibiotic activity in serum and urine after injections of cefoxitin than after equal doses of cephalothin. Urinary recovery of cefoxitin activity was also much higher than that of cephalothin. No evidence of toxicity due to cefoxitin was found. Cefoxitin was slightly less painful after intramuscular injection than cephalothin.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Formation of natural biofilms during chlorine dioxide and u.v. disinfection in a public drinking water distribution system.

AIMS: The influence of two disinfection techniques on natural biofilm development during drinking water treatment and subsequent distribution is compared with regard to the supply of a high-quality drinking water. METHODS AND RESULTS: The growth of biofilms was studied using the biofilm device technique in a real public technical drinking water asset. Different pipe materials which are commonly used in drinking water facilities (hardened polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, steel and copper) were used as substrates for biofilm formation. Apart from young biofilms, several months old biofilms were compared in terms of material dependence, biomass and physiological state. Vital staining of biofilms with 5-cyano-2,3-ditolyl tetrazolium chloride (CTC) and the DNA-specific 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) staining resulted in a significant difference in physiological behaviour of biofilm populations depending on the disinfection technique. Compared with chlorine dioxide disinfection (0.12-0.16 mg l-1), the respiratory activities of the micro-organisms were increased on all materials during u.v. disinfection (u.v.254; 400 J m-2). The biofilm biocoenosis was analysed by in situ hybridization with labelled oligonucleotides specific for some subclasses of Proteobacteria. Using PCR and additional hybridization techniques, the biofilms were also tested for the presence of Legionella spp., atypical mycobacteria and enterococci. The results of the molecular-biological experiments in combination with cultivation tests showed that enterococci were able to pass the u.v. disinfection barrier and persist in biofilms of the distribution system, but not after chlorine dioxide disinfection. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicated that bacteria are able to regenerate and proliferate more effectively after u.v. irradiation at the waterworks, and chlorine dioxide disinfection appears to be more applicative to maintain a biological stable drinking water. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: As far as the application of u.v. disinfection is used for conditioning of critical water sources for drinking water, the efficiency of u.v. irradiation in natural systems should reach a high standard to avoid adverse impacts on human health.

Biofilms↗
PubMed2002

[Evaluation of the Rapid Lumi 'Eiken' using chemiluminescent assay for rapid antimicrobial susceptibility testing].

One hundred ninety eight clinical isolates, including Enterobacteriaceae (70 strains), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (20 strains), Acinetobacter baumannii (10 strains), staphylococci (50 strains), enterococci (20 strains), Streptococcus pneumoniae (15 strains) and Haemophilus influenzae (13 strains) were tested for their antimicrobial susceptibilities by using the Rapid Lumi 'Eiken' (RL). As a reference method, broth microdilution method according to the National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards was used. Then, each MIC obtained by both of these methods was compared. In order to improve the discrepancy between MICs obtained by both methods, modification of the RL method was studied. All MICs using the RL method were obtained with an incubation period of 4 hours. The essential agreement (to within one twofold dilution) between MICs obtained by both methods was 82%. The false susceptible in the RL method test results (very major error) and the false resistant in the RL tests (major error) were 0.9% and 2.3%, respectively. The agreement of interpretive category (that is, when the categories obtained by both methods are in perfect agreement) was 89%. Proteus spp. and A. baumannii showed low essential agreements, 59% and 46% respectively. The differences were resulted from the RL method's MICs being higher than the reference method. In order to improve the difference between both methods, the RL method's procedure was modified in the inoculum size (10(6) CFU/mL to 10(5) CFU/mL), the menadione concentration (5 mg/L to 25 mg/L) and the interpretive criteria for Enterobacteriaceae and A. baumannii. As the results of the modification, the essential agreement in Proteus spp. and A. baumannii increased to 82% and 81%, respectively, and there was no significant change in the other species of Enterobacteriaceae. In the case of the modified RL method to Enterobacteriaceae and A. baumannii, the essential agreement, the very major error, the major error and the agreement of interpretive category of all 198 strains were 87%, 1.4%, 1.5% and 90%, respectively. In conclusion, with only 4-hour incubation period, the RL method based on chemiluminescent assay gave reliable susceptibility testing among the most clinically important bacteria. Although several tests showed low essential agreement, it was possible to improve by use of the modified RL method. The Rapid Lumi 'Eiken' will provide useful information for choosing the most effective antibiotic for primary treatment to bacterial infections.

Acinetobacter↗
PubMed1985

Comparative evaluation of recently developed quinolone compounds--with a note on the frequency of resistant mutants.

The antibacterial activity of the new quinolone compounds enoxacin, norfloxacin, ofloxacin and ciprofloxacin was evaluated in 300 Enterobacteriaceae, 50 Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 30 Acinetobacter spp., 15 Haemophilus influenzae, 50 Streptococcus faecalis, and 70 Staphylococcus aureus isolates and compared to that of nalidixic acid, gentamicin and various beta-lactam compounds. Moreover, the rate of spontaneous mutants resistant to quinolone compounds was evaluated. In concentrations only insignificantly exceeding the minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC), mutants could be isolated rather frequently (approx. 10(-6) fold); in concentrations of at least 10 times the MIC resistant mutants were barely detectable. In general, the mutants exhibited a 4- to 8-fold increase of the MIC as compared to the wild strain. In S. faecalis mutants were not detectable, whereas they occurred in low frequency (less than 10(-8) fold) in S. aureus strains. In all mutants there was almost, but not entirely, complete cross-resistance between the quinolone derivatives.

Acinetobacter↗
PubMed1988

Intergeneric and intrageneric conjugal transfer of plasmid-encoded antibiotic resistance determinants in Leuconostoc spp.

Transfer of the broad-host-range resistance plasmids pIP501 and pAM beta 1 from Streptococcus faecalis to Leuconostoc dextranicum and Leuconostoc cremoris occurred between cells that were immobilized on nitrocellulose filters in the presence of DNase. Transfer of pIP501 to Leuconostoc spp. also occurred when Streptococcus sanguis and Streptococcus lactis were used as donors. In addition, transfer of pIP501 and pAM beta 1 was observed from L. cremoris and L. dextranicum transconjugants to S. sanguis and S. faecalis. Expression of the pAM beta 1 erythromycin and pIP501 erythromycin and chloramphenicol resistance determinants was essentially equivalent in donors and transconjugants. Frequencies of transfer generally ranged from 10(-4) to 10(-7) transconjugants per input donor cell. Intrageneric transfer of pIP501 and pAM beta 1 occurred between L. cremoris and L. dextranicum strains in the same approximate range. These data further extend the host range of pIP501 and pAM beta 1 and demonstrate another example of gene transfer in the genus Leuconostoc.

Chloramphenicol↗
PubMed1989

[Effects of sulbactam on the activity of cefoperazone against various clinical isolates].

Sulbactam/Cefoperazone (SBT/CPZ) have been used in clinical infusion at ratios of 1:1 and 1:2 in Japan and U.S.A., respectively. After an administration of these drugs as a 1:1 parenteral formulation, the ratio of levels of CPZ and SBT in blood was 1:1/4 to 1:1/5 for 1 to 2 hours, whereas the ratio of free, unbound drug levels was 1:1.4 to 1:1.5. In urine these drugs were excreted at a ratio between 1:1 and 1:4 during 6 hours after the infusion. Antimicrobial interaction studies using various combinations of CPZ and SBT were performed to obtain information with respect to the effect of SBT on the antimicrobial activity of CPZ in vivo and the most appropriate ratio of these drugs for the in vitro test system. Antimicrobial activities were determined using the agar dilution method and the disk diffusion susceptibility test. SBT increased the activity of CPZ against various clinical isolates tested except Enterococcus faecalis. CPZ-SBT at a fixed ratio of 1:1/5 significantly increased the antimicrobial activity of CPZ, resulting in decreases in MIC values and increases in disk inhibitory zone diameters. These drugs at ratios 1:1 to 1:3 maximized the synergistic enhancement of the activity. Therefore, a fixed ratio between 1:1/5 and 1:1 would be appropriate for the in vitro antimicrobial test system using either the agar dilution method or the disk susceptibility test. Based on pharmacokinetic data for CPZ and SBT, results of the present study on antimicrobial activity would support that the parenteral formulation of CPZ-SBT at the fixed ratios of 1:1 and 2:1 for the intravenous infusion used in Japan and U.S.A., respectively, are appropriate. The effect of SBT on the activity of CPZ was more marked against clinical isolates with greater production abilities of beta-lactamase than against those with less production abilities. SBT/CPZ, however, exerted a synergistic effect against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus without beta-lactamase production. The MIC80 of SBT/CPZ (1:1) against various clinical isolates with 10(6) CFU/ml inoculum size were as follows: S. aureus 12.5 micrograms/ml, Staphylococcus epidermis 3.13 micrograms/ml, and E. faecalis 50 micrograms/ml. Those of Gram-negative bacilli were: Escherichia coli 0.20 microgram/ml, Klebsiella pneumoniae 0.20 micrograms/ml, Proteus mirabilis 0.78 microgram/ml, Proteus vulgaris 0.78 microgram/ml, Pseudomonas aeruginosa 12.5 micrograms/ml, Serratia marcescens 25 micrograms/ml, Enterobacter spp. 3.13 micrograms/ml, Citrobacter spp. 12.5 micrograms/ml and Acinetobacter spp. 0.78 microgram/ml.

Bacteria↗
PubMed1986

In-vitro activity of pefloxacin compared to other antibiotics.

Pefloxacin is a new quinolone carboxylic acid with a broad spectrum of antibacterial activity. A comparison was made of the in-vitro activity of pefloxacin and that of nine other antibiotics (ampicillin, ticarcillin, piperacillin, cefazolin, cefotaxime, ceftazidime, gentamicin, amikacin and norfloxacin). The MIC90 of pefloxacin against 500 strains of Enterobacteriaceae ranged from 0.25 mg/l (Escherichia coli, indole + Proteus spp., Enterobacter cloacae, Salmonella spp. and Shigella spp.) to 1 mg/l (Klebsiella pneumoniae). Pefloxacin inhibited 90% of 52 strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa at 2.5 mg/l (range 0.25 mg/l-4 mg/l). The MIC90 of pefloxacin against 100 Staphylococcus aureus strains (78 oxacillin resistant strains) was 0.4 mg/l (range 0.12-0.5 mg/l). It was markedly less active against Streptococcus faecalis and Str. pneumoniae (37 strains of each species) the MIC90 being 4 mg/l against both species. Overall, pefloxacin was at least as active as the third-generation cephalosporins against Enterobacteriaceae and was more active than any other antibiotic tested against P. aeruginosa, S. epidermidis, and S. aureus. Against E. coli, pefloxacin had a more rapid anti-bacterial activity than piperacillin. A paradoxical effect was observed with pefloxacin. An optimal killing rate was observed at concentrations of pefloxacin compatible with those one can expect in blood of patients treated with this drug.

Anti-Bacterial Agents↗
PubMed1998

Random amplified polymorphic DNA and amplified ribosomal DNA spacer polymorphism: powerful methods to differentiate Streptococcus thermophilus strains.

Streptococci from different collections and dairy materials were characterized by conventional and molecular methods. After amplification of the 16S-23S rDNA spacer region, all the strains referable to the genus Streptococcus exhibited a single polymerase chain reaction (PCR) product, allowing their differentiation from enterococci. Cleaving this PCR product with Hae III, two different restriction patterns could be observed, allowing Streptococcus salivarius DSM 20560T, Strep. thermophilus NCDO 822 and two strains of Streptococcus spp. to be gathered in one group and all the other strains in another. In order to achieve strain typing, all the cultures were investigated by random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD)-PCR analysis employing two selected primers. The results were treated by cluster analysis, appearing significantly consistent with both the taxonomic position and the origin of the strains. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) of Sma I digests of the genomic DNA from 11 representative strains with decreasing levels of RAPD similarity allowed their diversity to be confirmed, even though RAPD-PCR proved to be less discriminating than PFGE analysis. The results are discussed with reference to the capability of the analytical procedures used to aid both identification and strain typing of streptococci, as well as the taxonomic structure of the species Strep. thermophilus.

Bacterial Typing Techniques↗
PubMed1968

Cores, microbial organelles possibly specific to group D streptococci.

A long, thin, approximately cylindrical core spans the interior of cells of 24-hr cultures of all group D streptococci that were examined, five strains of Streptococcus faecalis, single strains of S. faecalis subsp. zymogenes and S. durans, and three strains of Streptococcus spp. In one strain of S. faecalis, serial section electron microscopy showed that most cells possess a core. The core is 0.10 to 0.16 mum thick and consists of a matrix and an axial array of ribosomelike particles. It resembles one of two types of cores present in a stable protoplast form of one of the S. faecalis strains. Cores were not present in single strains of S. pyogenes (beta-hemolytic group A), S. agalactiae (group B), S. dysgalactiae (group C), S. equisimilis (group C), and S. mitis (viridans group) that were examined; nor were cores observed in single strains of Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Bacillus megaterium. Cores may be useful, therefore, in identification of group D streptococci. For preservation and rapid recognition of cores, a glutaraldehyde-osmium tetroxide sequence of fixation appears superior to the osmium tetroxide method often employed in processing bacteria for electron microscopy.

Bacillus megaterium↗
PubMed2004

[Characterization of microbial population present in the edible seaweed, Monostroma undulatum, Wittrock].

The microbiological quality of Monostroma undulatum, Wittrock from the Southern Argentinean coast, was studied for its application for human food. Also the diversity and function of the native bacterial population to this green seaweed was analyzed. Samples were collected in Puerto Deseado, province of Santa Cruz, Southern Argentina (47 degrees 45'L.S., 65 degrees 55'L.W). The samples were analyzed for the presence of psycotrophic heterotrophic bacteria, marine heterotrophic bacteria, low nutritional request bacteria (LNRB), marine low nutritional request bacteria (LNRB marine), Vibrio spp, total and thermotolerant colifom bacteria, anaerobic sulfite reducing bacteria, yeasts and moulds. The isolates were identified using standard techniques based on morphologic, physiologic and metabolic characteristics. Among the gram-negative bacteria isolated, the predominant genera belonged to Vibrio (20%), E. coli inactiva (18%), Flavobacterium (11%), Flexibacter (9%), Moraxella (9%), Alcaligenes/Pseudomonas group (9%), Aeromonas (2%), Acinetobacter (2%). Cotophaga (2%), Photobacterium (2%), Ps/Caulobacter/Alteromonas/Spirillum group (2), The main genus of gram-positive bacteria was Staphylococcus. Human pathogenic bacteria were not detected. Fecal contamination indicator bacteria were not isolated from fresh seaweed and seawater. These results showed an adequate microbiological quality of seaweed acceptable for human food. The bacterial population associated to Monostroma undulatum, consisted of gram-negative, marine and psycotrophic microorganisms, including vibrios and enterobacteria as their main components. Also the identified bacteria showed a great capacity to hydrolyze different substrates and so they might contribute to the balance of this marine ecosystem.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Detection of viral pathogens by reverse transcriptase PCR and of microbial indicators by standard methods in the canals of the Florida Keys.

In order to assess the microbial water quality in canal waters throughout the Florida Keys, a survey was conducted to determine the concentration of microbial fecal indicators and the presence of human pathogenic microorganisms. A total of 19 sites, including 17 canal sites and 2 nearshore water sites, were assayed for total coliforms, fecal coliforms, Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens, enterococci, coliphages, F-specific (F(+)) RNA coliphages, Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium parvum, and human enteric viruses (polioviruses, coxsackie A and B viruses, echoviruses, hepatitis A viruses, Norwalk viruses, and small round-structured viruses). Numbers of coliforms ranged from <1 to 1, 410, E. coli organisms from <1 to 130, Clostridium spp. from <1 to 520, and enterococci from <1 to 800 CFU/100 ml of sample. Two sites were positive for coliphages, but no F(+) phages were identified. The sites were ranked according to microbial water quality and compared to various water quality standards and guidelines. Seventy-nine percent of the sites were positive for the presence of enteroviruses by reverse transcriptase PCR (polioviruses, coxsackie A and B viruses, and echoviruses). Sixty-three percent of the sites were positive for the presence of hepatitis A viruses. Ten percent of the sites were positive for the presence of Norwalk viruses. Ninety-five percent of the sites were positive for at least one of the virus groups. These results indicate that the canals and nearshore waters throughout the Florida Keys are being impacted by human fecal material carrying human enteric viruses through current wastewater treatment strategies such as septic tanks. Exposure to canal waters through recreation and work may be contributing to human health risks.

Clostridium↗
PubMed2004

Antimicrobial resistance in Campylobacter spp., Escherichia coli and enterococci associated with pigs in Australia.

The major influences on the amplification and spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria are the therapeutic use of antibiotics in human medicine and their use in livestock for therapy, prophylaxis and growth promotion. The use of veterinary antibiotics has many benefits to the livestock industries ensuring animal health and welfare, but use at subtherapeutic levels also exerts great selective pressure on emergence of resistant bacteria. The possible effect on human health is a problem of current debate. This study involved sampling pig carcasses, pig meat and assessing the level of resistance in zoonotic enteric bacteria of concern to human health. In South Australian pigs, thermophilic Campylobacter species showed widespread resistance (60-100%) to tylosin, erythromycin, lincomycin, ampicillin and tetracycline. No resistance was seen to ciprofloxacin. The enterococci demonstrated little resistance (0-30%) to vancomycin or virginiamycin, but the overall results from the antibiotic sensitivity testing of the enterococci have demonstrated how widespread their resistance has become. Escherichia coli strains showed widespread resistance to tetracycline and moderately common resistance (30-60%) to ampicillin and sulphadiazine. Resistance to more than one antibiotic was common. Pigs from New South Wales were also sampled and differences in resistance patterns were noted, perhaps reflecting different antibiotic use regimens in that state.

Abattoirs↗