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PubMed1991

A study to examine whether the basic sciences are appropriately organized to meet the future needs of medical education.

There is a growing divergence between the content of research activities in the basic sciences and that of the traditional preclinical courses for medical students. A 1977 study at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine (Penn) examined the organization of the school's basic sciences, including surveying the research interests and departmental affiliations of 101 basic science faculty at Penn and interviewing the basic science departments chairmen there and at five other research-intensive schools of medicine. The findings demonstrated overlapping interests among basic science investigators, significant blurring of departmental boundaries, and a divergence between the faculty members' research interests and the disciplines represented by the departments in which these faculty held appointments. A second study a decade later documented that this divergence had increased. This paper also addresses the mounting concern among medical educators in response to these kinds of developments, the effect of such developments on medical education, and issues concerning the teaching of basic sciences, course content, the responsibility of schools of medicine for effecting change, and a possible model for basic science instruction.

Education, Medical, Undergraduate↗
PubMed1999

University of Washington and partners' program to teach middle school students about neuroscience and science careers.

The Making Connections, Making Choices program is a multidisciplinary, neuroscience-focused project aimed at middle-school students and teachers primarily throughout Washington State and also across the country. The three components--the Summer Institute (for teacher training), the Brain Power Van (to visit schools and provide neuroscience education), and the speakers' bureau (to train clinicians and researchers to provide effective class-room and public talks and to schedule engagements)--work together to foster enriching, interactive science education experiences for students and teachers. The program has been funded by the National Center for Research Resources at the National Institutes of Health since 1991. Each year the aspect of it described in this article reaches 30-35 schools, with a total of more than 1,000 students and 80 teachers, plus another 30-40 teachers each summer. The program seeks to (1) enhance middle-school students' science knowledge, (2) help science teachers improve their science knowledge and teaching, (3) increase understanding and appreciation of biomedical research, (4) increase understanding of why animals are used in research, and (5) promote students' interest in science careers, especially the interest of students from groups underrepresented in science. Periodic evaluations showed that students exposed to the program scored higher on tests of neuroscience knowledge and had more interest in health science careers than did control groups of non-exposed students. The authors argue an important aspect of the program is that it has a broad focus and is multidisciplinary.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1999

An interdisciplinary national program developed at Baylor to make science exciting for all K-5 students.

The achievement gap in science begins in elementary school, where many students lose interest in science-related studies, particularly students from traditionally underrepresented groups. The "My Health My World" Project (hereafter, "the Project"), developed at Baylor College of Medicine with the assistance of federal funds, is a national effort to address this problem. The Project's goals are to make science appealing and relevant for elementary school students (i.e., kindergarten through grade five), including those from underrepresented minorities (URMs), and easy to teach for teachers and parents. It is achieving this goal by the development of interdisciplinary instructional materials that use environmental health issues as a unifying theme. The Project provides its materials (including take-home materials for parents) and training for teachers at seven dissemination centers across the country, established in 1997. Workshops are also held to train facilitators, chosen from among local science education leaders, who in turn hold workshops to train other teachers. Each center receives a mini-grant to cover costs related to the training it provides, and all coordinate their training to offer comparable experiences for all participants. Field tests in 1995, 1996, and 1997 involving culturally, racially, and ethnically diverse students and teachers in two sites indicate that the participating teachers found that the Project's materials promote science learning and enthusiasm for science and are easy to use and engaging for teachers. Ratings for workshops in 1998 were also high for all characteristics evaluated. All signs after the Project's first full year of dissemination activities (1998) indicate that it will continue to reach more teachers and students across the nation and will eventually help more students from all backgrounds achieve in science-related studies.

Child↗
PubMed2003

The reorganization of basic science departments in U.S. medical schools, 1980-1999.

The evolution of biomedical science and technology over the last 50 years has made biomedical research inherently interdisciplinary. Such changes have led observers to speculate about the ways in which traditional basic science departments in U.S. medical schools are being changed or consolidated. The authors describe their findings from a study that constructed a 20-year longitudinal database (1980-1999) to examine how basic science departments have been reorganized at U.S. medical schools. The data reveal that, in fact, there were fewer basic science departments in the traditional disciplines of anatomy, biochemistry, microbiology, pharmacology, and physiology in 1999 than in 1980. But as biomedical science has developed in an interdisciplinary manner, new basic science departments have been added. The most frequent type of change, however, has been in the renaming of existing departments. Overall, there were more, not fewer, basic science departments and more, not fewer, faculty members in these departments. These changes, taken together with the growth of interdisciplinary research centers and institutes and changing patterns of biomedical PhD training, affect both teaching and research in academic medicine. First, basic scientists are becoming increasingly dissociated from the traditional disciplines around which medical students' education is often organized. Second, the organization of biomedical research is in a state of transition that is responding to advances in scientific knowledge, technology, and targets of opportunity.

Curriculum↗
PubMed2005

The role of basic science knowledge and clinical knowledge in diagnostic reasoning: a structural equation modeling approach.

PURPOSE: To examine four theories on the role of basic science knowledge and clinical knowledge in diagnostic reasoning. METHOD: In 2000-01, the authors tested the basic science and clinical knowledge and diagnostic performances of 59 family physicians and 184 second- to sixth-year medical students at Maastricht University, The Netherlands. Structural equation modeling was used to analyze the data. Four theoretical models were tested. In the first model only basic science knowledge is involved in diagnostic reasoning; in the second model only clinical knowledge is related to diagnostic reasoning; in the third model, clinical knowledge is related to diagnostic reasoning, but basic science knowledge is integrated in clinical knowledge; and in the fourth model, both basic science knowledge and clinical knowledge independently influence diagnostic reasoning. RESULTS: Forty-four (75%) of the family physicians and 184 (100%) of the students responded. The results indicated that the third model, which is based on the knowledge encapsulation theory, provided the best fit to the data, whereas the models that had directly related basic science knowledge with diagnostic performance did not fit the data adequately. CONCLUSION: The results generally supported the third model by Schmidt and Boshuizen of knowledge encapsulation theory suggesting that basic science knowledge is activated in expert diagnostic reasoning through its relation with clinical knowledge.

Clinical Competence↗
PubMed2005

The Medawar Lecture 1998 is science dangerous?

The idea that science is dangerous is deeply embedded in our culture, particularly in literature, yet science provides the best way of understanding the world. Science is not the same as technology. In contrast to technology, reliable scientific knowledge is value-free and has no moral or ethical value. Scientists are not responsible for the technological applications of science; the very nature of science is that it is not possible to predict what will be discovered or how these discoveries could be applied. The obligation of scientists is to make public both any social implications of their work and its technological applications. A rare case of immoral science was eugenics. The image of Frankenstein has been turned by the media into genetic pornography, but neither cloning nor stem cells or gene therapy raise new ethical issues. There are no areas of research that are so socially sensitive that research into them should be proscribed. We have to rely on the many institutions of a democratic society: parliament, a free and vigorous press, affected groups and the scientists themselves. That is why programmes for the public understanding of science are so important. Alas, we still do not know how best to do this.

Cloning, Organism↗
PubMed2004

Growth of knowledge in psychiatry and behavioural sciences in a problem-based learning curriculum.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the effectiveness of undergraduate medical education in the domains of psychiatry and behavioural sciences, we examined the growth of knowledge in those disciplines in a 6-year, problem-based learning (PBL) curriculum. Psychiatry and behavioural sciences are taught in the 4 preclinical years and in the psychiatric clerkship. The integrative nature of this PBL curriculum led us to hypothesise that the knowledge growth curves for these disciplines are similar and show a steady upward trend throughout the curriculum. METHODS: All items pertaining to psychiatry and behavioural sciences in the progress tests administered in the period from September 1993 through May 2001 were identified. For those items, the percentage of correct scores in the 6 year groups were considered a multivariate observation reflecting knowledge growth across the 6-year programme. RESULTS: Knowledge growth for psychiatry and behavioural sciences increased significantly, from 12% to 59% and from 28% to 60%, respectively, between Year 1 and the end of Year 6. Apparently, students know more about behavioural sciences than about psychiatry when they enter medical school, but this difference vanishes in the last 2 years of training. Moreover, the growth curves for psychiatry and behavioural sciences started to level off after Years 3 and 4, respectively, with no additional significant growth in any of the later years. CONCLUSIONS: Psychiatry and behavioural sciences showed different patterns of knowledge growth and the 2 growth curves levelled off in Years 5 through 6. Because a student-centred, horizontally and vertically integrated PBL curriculum is aimed at effecting steady growth in knowledge in all disciplines, the slowdown in growth in the later years was among the reasons for initiating a major curricular innovation in 2001.

Behavioral Sciences↗
PubMed2005

Paired basic science and clinical problem-based learning faculty teaching side by side: do students evaluate them differently?

INTRODUCTION: Many studies have evaluated the desirability of expert versus non-expert facilitators in problem-based learning (PBL), but performance differences between basic science and clinical facilitators has been less studied. In a PBL course at our university, pairs of faculty facilitators (1 clinician, 1 basic scientist) were assigned to student groups to maximise integration of basic science with clinical science. AIMS: This study set out to establish whether students evaluate basic science and clinical faculty members differently when they teach side by side. METHODS: Online questionnaires were used to survey 188 students about their faculty facilitators immediately after they completed each of 3 serial PBL cases. Overall satisfaction was measured using a scale of 1-7 and yes/no responses were gathered from closed questions describing faculty performance. results: Year 1 students rated basic science and clinical facilitators the same, but Year 2 students rated the clinicians higher overall. Year 1 students rated basic scientists higher in their ability to understand the limits of their own knowledge. Year 2 students rated the clinicians higher in several content expertise-linked areas: preparedness, promotion of in-depth understanding, and ability to focus the group, and down-rated the basic scientists for demonstrating overspecialised knowledge. Students' overall ratings of individual faculty best correlated with the qualities of stimulation, focus and preparedness, but not with overspecialisation, excessive interjection of the faculty member's own opinions, and encouragement of psychosocial issue discussion. CONCLUSION: When taught by paired basic science and clinical PBL facilitators, students in Year 1 rated basic science and clinical PBL faculty equally, while Year 2 students rated clinicians more highly overall. The Year 2 difference may be explained by perceived differences in content expertise.

Attitude of Health Personnel↗
PubMed2002

Sharing science: characteristics of effective scientist-teacher interactions.

Despite national guidelines to reform K-12 science education, our students are not learning science any better. Conducted under the auspices of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, a symposium examined several programs where professional scientists interact with classroom teachers to improve science education. Symposium participants described their projects and discussed the factors that contribute or detract from each project's success. The events of this symposium are critically analyzed. Four themes emerged as issues that affect the successful implementation and continuation of science education reform projects: scientific literacy as a primary goal, personal characteristics and commitment of project partners, curricular change built on social and developmental goals, and the incentive/reward structures in universities and school systems. This review of the emergent themes places the opinions of the symposium participants into the larger context of a growing science education research literature to inform others about synergy between professional scientists and classroom teachers. Our aim is to help others learn about the characteristics of effective partnerships to improve science education.

Cooperative Behavior↗
PubMed1992

A faculty research and training program for undergraduates in the sciences.

Faculty enthusiasm, with actual hands-on involvement, is a critical factor in establishing student research interest and excitement in a university or college science environment. Such faculty involvement is infectious to students and therefore key to restoring United States leadership in science and technology in the next decades. Most scientists acknowledge that they were initially attracted into scientific careers through one or two notable teachers who served as role models. However, with the introduction of so-called "big science" and its distraction of university faculty away from meaningful, direct student contacts, and with associated withdrawal of funding from "little science" in the college teacher's laboratory, research languishes in nearly all undergraduate teaching institutions. The inspiring college science teacher seems essentially gone, tired or burnt out, unable to keep pace with the rigorous demands of an active research lab while simultaneously meeting the exhausting load of 15-18 (or more) contact teaching hours per week. With all of the associated lecture preparations, student counseling, and Dean's committee assignments, the teacher has little or no scholarly "think time" or opportunity to inspire even the bright students. Without the teacher's honest and evident involvement and deep commitment, the student fails to experience the essential impact of a convincing role model. It is therefore necessary to restore the college science teacher's opportunity and aspirations to be personally involved in research. This can only be accomplished by providing time, facilities, incentives, and encouragement to do what originally attracted the teacher into a career in science and teaching in the first place.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Education, Medical, Undergraduate↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Science in the schoolhouse: an uninvited guest.

Science and scientific thinking have not made a substantial impact on educational practice. In this discussion, we examine the relationship between science and education and delineate four reasons for characterizing science as an uninvited guest in schools: (a) Science is not highly regarded in society; (b) good science and bad science are often mistaken for one another; (c) the amount of current data is overwhelming; and (d) science is not easy for those who practice it (researchers), those who translate it (teacher educators), or those who consume it (teachers). We suggest several strategies to improve this relationship, including promoting standards of educational practice, emphasizing the role of teacher educators as translators of the research base into classroom practice, and linking student outcomes with the use of effective instructional practices.

Achievement↗
PubMed2002

The development of science achievement in middle and high school. Individual differences and school effects.

Using data from the Longitudinal Study of American Youth (LSAY), hierarchical linear models (HLMs) were used to model the growth of student science achievement in three areas (biology, physical science, and environmental science) during middle and high school. Results showed significant growth in science achievement across all areas. The growth was quadratic across all areas, with rapid growth at the beginning grades of middle school but slow growth at the ending grades of high school. At the student level, socioeconomic status (SES) and age were related to the rate of growth in all areas. There were no gender differences in the rate of growth in any of the three areas. At the school level, variables associated with school context (school mean SES and school size) and variables associated with school climate (principal leadership, academic expectation, and teacher autonomy) were related to the growth in science achievement. Initial (Grade 7) status in science achievement was not associated with the rate of growth in science achievement among either students or schools in any of the three areas.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1984

The behavioural sciences and undergraduate education in psychiatry.

The Behavioural Sciences are becoming increasingly important in medical education and in medical treatment. But medical students and the profession generally, appear to have difficulty accepting behavioural sciences as a valid part of the curriculum and in the practice of medicine. One of the reasons for this may be related to a narrow definition of the physician's social role in the years following the adoption of the Flexner Report in 1911 which emphasized the model of the physician/scientist. The perennial model of the physician occupying a social role in which science is used to increase and rationalize responsiveness to suffering has been eroded in favour of the pursuit of the scientific as the essential goal of medicine. The newer, "softer", sciences of anthropology, ecology, economics, psychology and sociology have not fitted into the professional self-perception of the medical role. Furthermore, some departments of behavioural science have adopted an intellectual stance at times antagonistic to the rest of the medical school emphasizing the shortcomings of the profession in its delivery of health care. The aspirant medical student may have been disaffected by teachers who do not embody acceptable role models. Students should receive specific instructions in the social role of the physician, physicians should be actively involved in teaching the behavioral sciences and the curriculum should at all times emphasize the relevance of the behavioural sciences to the daily practice of medicine.

Behavioral Sciences↗
PubMed1992

Nursing knowledge and human science: ontological and epistemological considerations.

This article examines the meaning of human science in relation to extant nursing knowledge. The origins of the human science tradition are traced to the philosopher Wilhelm Dilthey, who challenged the dominance of the positivist perspective for generating knowledge of the human lifeworld. Specific ontological and epistemological criteria for human science are proposed. Four nursing frameworks, Paterson and Zderad's humanistic nursing, Newman's model of health as expanding consciousness, Watson's human science and human care, and Parse's theory of human becoming, are found to have consistencies and inconsistencies with the human science tradition. It is proposed that the human science perspective is present in and will continue to be reflected in the evolution of nursing science.

Humans↗
PubMed2005

[Lights, art, science - action!].

The article offers some reflections on the main interactions between theater, science, and technology down through the history of theater. Based on our experience at "Science in the Spotlight", part of the Casa de Oswaldo Cruz's Museum of Life, we discuss how these interactions can be part of a science museum's daily activities. We use the word 'science' in its broad sense, encompassing not only the natural but human sciences as well; likewise, we use the word 'technology' as it relates to applied science. Art and science are understood here as creative processes, as ways of representing the world and expressing human knowledge.

Art↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Concept mapping: promoting science learning in BN learners in Australia.

BACKGROUND: We reviewed the process of using concept mapping as a methodology to teach science to RNs in a bachelor degree of nursing program in Australia. METHOD: The technique was used for two classes of students in the science unit during 1995 with work packages and independent student learning being the focus of the unit. RESULTS: Both instructors and students found the experience mainly positive. It helped the students become more independent learners, have a greater confidence in their knowledge of science, and allowed their understanding of science in their practice to become more meaningful and personalized. For the instructors it allowed them to concentrate on students with learning difficulties because they had less face-to-face teaching hours. Major issues arising from the process related to how to balance science content and the techniques of concept mapping and how to more effectively assess the learning outcomes of the students. CONCLUSION: Concept mapping is a useful technique to link science and nursing practice. Not only can it be used in academic programs to teach the science underlying practice, it can be used in the clinical area to teach patients. As a technique it works well in staff development and continuing education where the focus is on elucidating the rationale for inuring practice and providing evidence for the value of this practice.

Australia↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Is management still a science?

New technologies are transforming products, markets, and entire industries. Yet the more science and technology reshape the essence of business, the less useful the concept of management itself as a science seems to be. On reflection, this paradox is not so surprising. The traditional scientific approach to management promised to provide managers with the capacity to analyze, predict, and control the behavior of the complex organizations they led. But the world most managers currently inhabit often appears to be unpredictable, uncertain, and even uncontrollable. In the face of this more volatile business environment, the old-style mechanisms of "scientific management" seem positively counterproductive. And science itself appears less and less relevant to the practical concerns of managers. In this article, science journalist David Freedman argues that the problem lies less in the shortcomings of a scientific approach to management than in managers' understanding of science. What most managers think of as scientific management is based on a conception of science that few current scientists would defend. What's more, just as managers have become more preoccupied with the volatility of the business environment, scientists have also become preoccupied with the inherent volatility--the "chaos" and "complexity"--of nature. They are developing new rules for complex behavior in physical systems that have intriguing parallels to the kind of organizational behaviors companies are trying to encourage. In fact, science, long esteemed by business as a source of technological innovation, may ultimately prove of greatest value to managers as a source of something else: useful ways of looking at the world.

Administrative Personnel↗
PubMed2001

[Reflections about the relationship of science and art].

Science is dealing with the nature, the human beings and the society, and aims to explore the laws of their existence. It uses universal scientific methods, by taking all known laws of nature into consideration. It is free of subjectivity and is guided by a high degree of consciousness. In the author's view, the goal of science is to create a balance between man and nature by exploring the rules of the universe. Art, on the other hand, carries a message about the man and the world, which originates in both emotion and intuition. It intends to impress our feelings and wishes to entertain, create pleasure or make us accept its message. One might wonder about the nature of relationship between art and science. Do we scientists waste our valuable time when dealing with art? Furthermore, is it of any use for artists to deal with science? Ever since the ancient times, scientists have been highly appreciated. Artists, however, used to belong to lower social classes up until the 18th century. Still, the commercial and political life of the Middle Ages were greatly influenced by the guildes, where artists as craftsmen belonged to. Art and science have always been interconnected, although their contents and messages kept changing during the centuries. In the 5th century, sciences were listed among the "septem artes liberales", the "seven free arts". When comparing the creative process of art and science, we might find similarities and differences, some of which will be discussed in the paper. Both research and clinical profession demands devoted work. One of the most valuable form of stress reduction and relaxation is the enjoyment or practice of art. Engagement in art as a form of hobby widens our horizon which in turn stimulates professional work. We might as well agree with the wise saying: Without hobby, one can neither relax nor concentrate.

Art↗