Peru's population in the 1980s.
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Americas↗
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Differentials in urban-rural fertility in the countries of the ESCAP region.
Fertility differentials between rural and urban populations are investigated using World Fertility Survey data for Bangladesh, Fiji, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, the Philippines, the Republic of Korea, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. "The fertility measure used in this analysis is the number of children ever born to a woman. An attempt is made first to establish the differential in fertility levels between urban and rural areas after necessary control of the demographic factors..., and then the possible explanation of the differential is sought in terms of socio-economic variables such as education of the respondent, and occupation, work pattern, work status and place of work of the respondent as well as that of the husband." Data concerning the fertility differentials and the associated explanatory variables are presented in tables and charts. "The results tend to show that the countries of Asia are undergoing similar patterns of fertility transition as was experienced in the advanced countries. Perhaps one can graduate the countries in the transition scale as follows: Bangladesh, Indonesia, Nepal, Pakistan and Malaysia are in the initial stage; Fiji, the Philippines, the Republic of Korea, Sri Lanka and Thailand are in the middle stage of transition."
Age Factors↗
Platinum group elements in raptor eggs, faeces, blood, liver and kidney.
The increased use of platinum group elements (PGEs) in automobile catalysts and their emission into the environment has led to a concern over environmental and particularly biological accumulation. Specimens of samples from raptors are useful for the investigation of the impact of PGEs because these birds are found in both urban and rural environments and are invariably at the top of the food chain. Platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd) and rhodium (Rh) concentrations were determined by quadrupole Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) in eggs of the sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus) and the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), and in blood, liver and kidney of the peregrine falcon, while only Pt was determined in faeces of the peregrine falcon and the gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus). PGE concentrations were higher in blood compared to both faeces and eggs, while liver and kidney concentrations were not elevated indicating no bioaccumulation through metallothionein pathways. A significant spatial trend could only be established for Pt in faeces. The general lack of a spatial trend is probably due to the widespread distribution of automobiles and the long-range transport of nanoparticles containing PGEs, and because birds migrate and forage over large areas. No significant temporal trend could be established. Higher relative concentrations of Pd, followed by Rh and Pt, indicate a mobility gradient of Pd>>Rh>Pt.
Animals↗
A cross-sectional study of the prevalence of intensity of infection with Schistosoma japonicum in 50 irrigated and rain-fed villages in Samar Province, the Philippines.
BACKGROUND: Few studies have described heterogeneity in Schistosoma japonicum infection intensity, and none were done in Philippines. The purpose of this report is to describe the village-to-village variation in the prevalence of two levels of infection intensity across 50 villages of Samar Province, the Philippines. METHODS: This cross-sectional study was conducted in 25 rain-fed and 25 irrigated villages endemic for S. japonicum between August 2003 and November 2004. Villages were selected based on irrigation and farming criteria. A maximum of 35 eligible households were selected per village. Each participant was asked to provide stool samples on three consecutive days. All those who provided at least one stool sample were included in the analysis. A Bayesian three category outcome hierarchical cumulative logit regression model with adjustment for age, sex, occupation and measurement error of the Kato-Katz technique was used for analysis. RESULTS: A total of 1427 households and 6917 individuals agreed to participate in the study. A total of 5624 (81.3%) participants provided at least one stool sample. The prevalences of those lightly and at least moderately infected varied from 0% (95% Bayesian credible interval (BCI): 0%-3.1%) to 45.2% (95% BCI: 36.5%-53.9%) and 0% to 23.0% (95% BCI: 16.4%-31.2%) from village-to-village, respectively. Using the 0-7 year old group as a reference category, the highest odds ratio (OR) among males and females were that of being aged 17-40-year old (OR = 8.76; 95% BCI: 6.03-12.47) and 11-16-year old (OR = 8.59; 95% BCI: 4.74-14.28), respectively. People who did not work on a rice farm had a lower prevalence of infection than those working full time on a rice farm. The OR for irrigated villages compared to rain-fed villages was 1.41 (95% BCI: 0.50-3.21). DISCUSSION: We found very important village-to-village variation in prevalence of infection intensity. This variation is probably due to village-level variables other than that explained by a crude classification of villages into the irrigated and non-irrigated categories. We are planning to capture this spatial heterogeneity by updating our initial transmission dynamics model with the data reported here combined with 1-year post-treatment follow-up of study participants.
Adolescent↗
Binomial cokriging for estimating and mapping the risk of childhood cancer.
The incidences of human diseases vary from place to place, and this is also likely to be so for the risk of people developing many of them. We have analysed the spatial distribution of childhood cancer in the West Midland Health Authority Region of England from 1980 to 1984. This is a rare disease which is considered to be noncontagious. The observed frequencies of the disease in the electoral wards have been converted to proportions that estimate the risk of a child's developing it. The spatial autocorrelation of the risk, expressed in the variogram, was determined in a novel way from the proportions within electoral wards by treating them as binomial variables dependent on the risk and the numbers of children in the wards. The observed variogram was modelled by Whittle's elementary two-dimensional correlation. Covariances of the proportion and cross covariances between the proportion and the risk were derived, and from the latter and the proportions the risk was estimated in two ways by a form of cokriging: ordinary and conditional unbiased cokriging. The variogram of the risk shows strong autocorrelation, and the kriged estimates, when mapped, have a distribution that is far from even. There are patches where the estimated risk is large, especially in the rural south west and the suburban north east; and there are other patches, notably the more densely populated areas, where it is small.
Adolescent↗
Characteristics of family planning clients in Bangladesh.
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Bangladesh↗
The Bwamanda hospital insurance scheme: effective for whom? A study of its impact on hospital utilization patterns.
The Bwamanda hospital insurance scheme in Zaire was launched in the mid-eighties and is one of the few well-established and documented initiatives in the field of district-based insurance schemes in sub-Saharan Africa. It was established that hospital utilization in Bwamanda is significantly higher among the insured population. A higher hospital utilization is however not a goal in itself: it is a positive phenomenon if it takes place for problems where the hospital's know-how and technology are needed to solve the patient's problem. This paper investigates the effect of the insurance scheme on hospital utilization patterns. More specifically, the distribution of this higher utilization over the different hospital departments, as well as its spatial distribution in the entire district area are analyzed. The impact of the insurance scheme on the effectiveness, equity and efficiency of hospital utilization are discussed. The relevance and possible implications of these findings on the design of the Bwamanda insurance scheme are discussed. Finally, it is argued that the methods used in the present study contribute to a coherent framework for the evaluation of similar initiatives.
Adult↗
Age at menarche and urbanization in Cameroon: current status and secular trends.
Status quo data on the age at menarche were obtained on samples of Cameroonian girls living in urban (Yaoundé) (n = 205), suburban (n = 505) and rural areas (n = 201). Mean ages at menarche, estimated by probit analysis, are 13.18 years (SD 1.08) in Yaoundé, 13.98 years (SD 1.55) in the suburban area, and 14.27 years (SD 1.65) in the rural area. The early menarcheal age observed in Yaoundé girls attending 'privileged schools' (12.72 years, SD 1.18) substantiates the hypothesis that in good environmental conditions Africans are as early-maturing as Asiatic or Mediterranean populations. Comparison with retrospective data on age at menarche during previous decades reveals the presence of a clear secular trend towards earlier maturation, at a rate of 2.5-3.2 months per decade, only in the main cities of the country (Yaoundé/Douala) and a lack of temporal variation in rural areas. The degree of urbanization influences maturational age and its evolution, probably through improvements in the nutritional standards.
Adolescent↗
Socio-economic determinants of divorce in Bangladesh.
"This study examines the divorce pattern of Bangladesh with a set of socio-economic factors: education, religion, current residence, childhood residence, work status before and after marriage and age at first marriage. The source of data was ever-married women aged 15-49 of 1975 Bangladesh Fertility Survey. Multiple classification analysis technique was used for analyzing the data.... Divorce is found to have a strong inverse relation with age at marriage, and is more common among illiterates, Muslims, and rural women. The duration of marriage before divorce is found to be very low and the divorce rate is strongly associated with childlessness."
Asia↗
Primary health care in the context of rapid urbanization.
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Africa↗
The delineation of fertility strategies in a tribal population of India: the Koyas of Koraput District, Orissa.
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Age Factors↗
Epidemiological review of lung cancer in man.
Lung cancer is primarily a 20th century phenomenon; its epidemiology is reviewed and the usefulness of epidemiological studies in providing clues to etiology is evaluated. Internationally, lung cancer accounts for up to 13% of all deaths in age groups above 45 years. It is a disease characterized by large international variations in incidence; in addition, urban-rural differences occur in many countries. Male:female ratios are high, 4 to 5; but after a rise during the first half of the century, these ratios are now declining in a number of countries. Neither racial distribution nor migrant studies indicate that genetic factors play any important role in the etiology of lung cancer. The only possible indication of their playing such a role is the high incidence of lung cancer among Chinese, primarily Cantonese, women. A genetic determination of individual susceptibility has been suggested, but racial differences remain to be demonstrated. The increase in lung cancer that started during the first decades of the 20th century in Europe and North America is consistent with the introduction of a carcinogen into the environment at the turn of the century. Both spatial and temporal trends of lung cancer support the hypothesis that cigarette smoking is the major etiological factor. This is further supported by numerous specific investigations of the problem. A decrease in lung cancer incidence in certain age groups in a number of countries may reflect changing smoking habits and the diminishing tar content of modern cigarettes, thus indicating ways of prevention. Current knowledge of general air pollution seems to ascribe it a secondary role as an etiological factor. The risk of lung cancer is greater in certain occupations, often because of an interaction between industrial air pollution and smoking. It may be concluded that lung cancer is largely a problem of modern society and that the epidemiological results are consistent with an etiological role of preventable environmental factors.
Adult↗
Distribution of time of first birth in presence of social customs regulating physical separation and coital frequency.
The interval between marriage and the first birth in India, particularly in rural areas, is much longer than what is observed in western countries. In eastern Uttar Pradesh, the mean interval is observed to be even longer, possibly due to traditional customs such as the female partner's visits to her parents in the early years of marriage and the smaller chance of coition because of the observance of rigid intercourse taboos. Thus the models to explain the length of the interval of marriage to first birth proposed by Western demographers, which assume that the period of cohabitation between marriage and first birth is uninterrupted, often do not describe the data satisfactorily when applied to rural India. In this paper a model to describe data on first birth interval is proposed that takes account of the distributions of timing and periods of physical separation and variation in fecundity with effective marriage duration.
Adolescent↗
American cutaneous leishmaniasis in Southeast Brazil: space-time clustering.
BACKGROUND: American cutaneous leishmaniasis (ACL) is endemic in many rural areas of Brazil where different transmission patterns of the disease have been described. This ecological study was carried out in a municipality located in Southeast Brazil and aimed to investigate the space-temporal patterns of the disease and environmental risk factors from 1966 to 1996. METHODS: Incident ACL cases were defined by clinical diagnosis, confirmed by a positive skin test and/or parasitological examination. Age-adjusted morbidity rate of ACL was calculated by year for this municipality and their different census enumeration districts. The homogeneity chi2 test, Moran and empirical Bayes index and Knox procedure were employed for testing the significance of clusters in time, space and in time-space, respectively. A Poisson regression model was used to identify environmental factors related to rate variability. RESULTS: A total of 1712 new ACL cases were reported with a yearly incidence rate of 48/100000 inhabitants. Higher incidence rates were detected in 1968, 1974, and 1988 (100, 160, and 190 cases/100000, respectively) with evidence of spatial clustering from 1986 to 1993. Significant space-time clustering with epidemic peaks followed by low incidence in subsequent periods was observed. The incidence rates of ACL were independently associated with rural areas; areas lacking sanitary installations and with higher proportion of exposed garbage (P < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that ACL rates vary across space and time. Rural areas and some environmental factors could explain part of this variation. Environmental modifications in the vicinity of households over time and accumulation of susceptible individuals are discussed as possible factors responsible for variability.
Adult↗
A model for urbanizing rural population and development measures: survey of a large specialized market in Xiliu town, Liaoning province.
The authors present an urbanization model using the example of Xiliu town in Liaoning province, China. Xiliu has developed from a rural commune into a large-scale clothing market during the period since 1979. "The purpose...is to show, by means of a survey conducted in the town, the characteristics and formative factors of the model and to discuss the prospect of and measures for furthering this development."
Asia↗
Measurements of atmospheric mercury with high time resolution: recent applications in environmental research and monitoring.
In the past five years automated high time-resolution measurements of mercury species in ambient air have promoted remarkable progress in the understanding of the spatial distribution, short-term variability, and fate of this priority pollutant in the lower troposphere. Examples show the wide range of possible applications of these techniques in environmental research and monitoring. Presented applications of measurement methods for total gaseous mercury (TGM) include long-term monitoring of atmospheric mercury at a coastal station, simultaneous measurements during a south-to-north transect measurement campaign covering a distance of approximately 800 km, the operation on board of a research aircraft, and the quantification of mercury emissions from naturally enriched surface soils. First results obtained with a new method for the determination of reactive gaseous mercury (RGM) are presented. Typical background concentrations of TGM are between 1.5 and 2 ng m(-3) in the lower troposphere. Concentrations of RGM have been determined at a rural site in Germany between 2 and 35 pg m(-3). Flux measurements over naturally enriched surface soils in the Western U.S.A. have revealed emission fluxes of up to 200 ng Hg m(-1) h(-1) under dry conditions.
Air Pollutants, Occupational↗
Platinum group elements in the feathers of raptors and their prey.
Platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd), and rhodium (Rh) concentrations were determined in the feathers of three raptor species in Sweden, the sparrowhawk ( Accipiter nisus), the peregrine falcon ( Falco peregrinus), and the gyrfalcon ( Falco rusticolus), as well as the main prey of the sparrowhawk (the house sparrow, Passer domesticus) and the gyrfalcon (the willow grouse, Lagopus lagopus). The analysis of feathers from 1917-1999 revealed a clear temporal trend, with significantly higher Rh concentrations in sparrowhawk and peregrine falcon after 1986. There is evidence for increasing platinum group element (PGE) concentrations from 1917 to 1999 in peregrine falcon and sparrowhawk. This suggests that feathers reflect increased PGE concentrations in the environment over this time period. Mean concentrations of PGE in feathers of raptors after 1986 ranged from 0.3 to 1.8 ng x g(-1) for Pt, 0.6 to 2.1 ng x g(-1) for Pd (indicative values), and 0.1 to 0.6 ng x g(-1) for Rh. House sparrows in urban areas had significantly higher Pt and Pd concentrations than urban sparrowhawks. The higher Pd concentrations in relation to Pt and Rh may indicate the greater mobility of Pd in the environment. Although PGE concentrations are generally higher in birds living in urban areas, no significant spatial trend could be established. This is partly due to the widespread distribution of automobiles and partly because birds forage and integrate PGE exposure over large areas. Laser ablation analysis demonstrates that PGE contamination of feathers is predominantly external, consisting of small particles in the nanometer size range. Other indications of external contamination are that Pt and Pd levels are significantly higher in the vane than in the shaft and that PGE relative ratios (except Pd) reflect urban particles.
Animals↗
A geostatistical approach to the analysis of pattern in rare disease.
The incidences of human disease vary from place to place, and some show distinct patterns. Patterns in rare diseases, such as childhood cancer, are not readily discernible, however, and this makes it difficult to relate their distribution to factors in the environment in seeking possible causes of the disease. Provided cases are geographically indexed, data on a disease can be analysed geostatistically. Variograms can be computed to determine the strength and spatial scale of any pattern, and to summarize the variation, and then the risk of developing the disease can be estimated by kriging. This has been done for the incidence rates of childhood cancer from 1980 to 1984 in the West Midlands Health Authority Region of England. A novel modification was made to compute the variogram of the risk from that of the frequencies, taking into account the binomial nature of the data. The incidence of the disease appears patchy. The results show that this patchiness is spatially correlated and not purely random. The risk appears greatest in the rural south west of the Region and in some of the suburbs around the conurbation. This approach using geostatistics seems very promising and will be developed further as more data for this and other diseases become available.
Child↗