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PubMed1994

Initial recall, reminiscence, and hypermnesia: comment on Madigan and O'Hara (1992).

S. Madigan and R. O'Hara (1992) analyzed data from repeated free-recall experiments and concluded that the rate of item recovery across tests was related to the level of recall performance on an initial free-recall test. We report a reanalysis of these data along with Monte Carlo simulations that indicate the measures used by Madigan and O'Hara may have inflated the magnitude of the relation between initial recall and item recovery. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for future research investigating reminiscence and hypermnesia.

Computer Simulation↗
PubMed1995

Decision processes in recognition memory: criterion shifts and the list-strength paradigm.

This article focuses on decision processes in recognition memory. It begins with investigation of the hypothesis that the measured criterion increases systematically with the memorability of old items. Three experiments using the list-strength paradigm, and a review of the prior literature, present results consistent with this hypothesis. Several psychological models of criterion placement are examined, generating different predictions about the relative sizes of criterion shifts for strong and weak items. A range model, in which criterion placement depends on the estimated range of the old and new distributions, predicts that criterion shifts should be larger for weak items; this result emerges in a reanalysis of prior studies. The general discussion elaborates on how a focus on criterion placement can explain the mirror effect (Glanzer, Adams, Iverson, & Kim, 1993) and provides a framework for testing Shiffrin, Ratcliff, and Clark's (1990) claims about why null effects of list strength occur with repetition.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

Temporal structure of syntactic parsing: early and late event-related brain potential effects.

Event-related brain potentials (ERPs) were recorded from participants listening to or reading sentences that were correct, contained a violation of the required syntactic category, or contained a syntactic-category ambiguity. When sentences were presented auditorily (Experiment 1), there was an early left anterior negativity for syntactic-category violations, but not for syntactic-category ambiguities. Both anomaly types elicited a late centroparietally distributed positivity. When sentences were presented visually word by word (Experiment 2), again an early left anterior negativity was found only for syntactic-category violations, and both types of anomalies elicited a late positivity. The combined data are taken to be consistent with a 2-stage model of parsing, including a 1st stage, during which an initial phrase structure is built and a 2nd stage, during which thematic role assignment and, if necessary, reanalysis takes place. Disruptions to the 1st stage of syntactic parsing appear to be correlated with an early left anterior negativity, whereas disruptions to the 2nd stage might be correlated with a late posterior distributed positivity.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

The category access measure of relational processing.

Increases in category access (CA) and items recalled per category (IPC) are associated with increases in relational and item-specific processing, respectively. However, it has also been shown that CA increases as recall level increases and that CA scores following relational processing are actually below CA scores for randomly recalled items. These results prompted M. D. Murphy (1979) to suggest that, after adjusting for recall-level differences, relational processing decreases CA scores. Results of Experiment 1, along with a reanalysis of previously published data, showed that relational processing produces lower CA scores than purely item-specific processing (or random recall), but an increase in relational processing produces an increase in CA scores even when the CA and IPC scores are adjusted for recall-level differences. These results suggest a curvilinear relationship between relational processing and CA scores.

Humans↗
PubMed1988

Seemingly discrepant data from hippocampectomized macaques are reconciled by detectability analysis.

Wide differences in the effects of hippocampectomy on the visual memory performances of monkeys have been reported in the literature. These differences have been attributed to the extent of preoperative training. Previous calculations, however, have always utilized data expressed as a percentage correct. A reanalysis based on detectability, the d' of signal detection theory, suggests that the differences may be illusory. The losses in visual memory performance due to hippocampal lesions as measured in different laboratories are about equal in terms of d'. This points out a potential trap in making direct comparison of absolute differences in percentage values.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Models of intelligence in late life: comment on Hultsch et al. (1999).

The authors comment on D. F. Hultsch, C. Hertzog, B. J. Small, and R. A. Dixon's (1999) report of the latest results of the Victoria Longitudinal Study, which are presented as a test of the engagement hypothesis, and on their reanalysis of the data from the Veterans Study (Pushkar Gold et al., 1995), which proposes an alternative model of intellectual function. Differences between the methodologies, variables, and concepts of engaged lifestyle in the 2 studies lead to different tests of the engagement hypothesis and different conclusions. Failure to report specified paths and unjustified assumptions lessen the credibility of the Hultsch et al. model for the Veterans Study data. The authors conclude that their original model, which indicates a small but significant effect of engaged adult lifestyle on the maintenance of intellectual verbal abilities in later life, provides a better explanation of the Veterans Study data.

Aged↗
PubMed1993

Aging and forgetting in prospective and retrospective memory tasks.

Ss aged 52-83 years were asked to name 30 famous people 4 times over the course of an hour and to respond to 2 targets (a beard and a pipe) by marking the trial number on the response sheet. Initial performance in the prospective memory task was related only to a measure of incidental learning. Subsequent forgetting (i.e., success followed by failure) occurred more often for older Ss than for younger Ss, but there was no difference between the age groups in recovery (i.e., failure followed by success). Forgetting was predicted by age, even after a composite measure of general ability was included in the regression. Recovery was related to general ability alone. These results both replicate and extend those from a reanalysis of a previous study (Maylor, 1990a). They provide a striking contrast with the effect of age on retrospective memory, namely, age-related impairment on initial performance but no effect of age on subsequent forgetting.

Aging↗
PubMed1998

Recollection and familiarity deficits in amnesia: convergence of remember-know, process dissociation, and receiver operating characteristic data.

Previous studies using the process dissociation and the remember-know procedures led to conflicting conclusions regarding the effects of anterograde amnesia on recollection and familiarity. We argue that these apparent contradictions arose because different models were used to interpret the results and because differences in false-alarm rates between groups biased the estimates provided by those models. A reanalysis of those studies with a dual-process signal-detection model that incorporates response bias revealed that amnesia led to a pronounced reduction in recollection and smaller but consistent reduction in familiarity. To test the assumptions of the model and to further assess recognition deficits in amnesics, we examined receiver operating characteristics (ROCs) in amnesics and controls. The ROCs of the controls were curved and asymmetrical, whereas those of the amnesics were curved and symmetrical. The results supported the predictions of the model and indicated that amnesia was associated with deficits in both recollection and familiarity.

Aged↗
PubMed2004

The person in recovery from acute and severe psychosis: the role of dependency, self-criticism, and efficacy.

The role of 3 personality dimensions (i.e., dependency, self-criticism, and efficacy) in recovery from an acute and severe psychosis was examined. Conceptualizing psychosis as involving difficulties in establishing psychological boundaries, the authors hypothesized that dependency has a greater disruptive effect on recovery than self-criticism. Results of a reanalysis of longitudinal data (N = 76) of people with schizophrenia spectrum disorders during recovery from acute psychosis were consistent with this hypothesis: Dependency predicted depressive and negative symptoms, and, under low efficacy, perceived loss of independence and insight into the presence of the illness. These findings elucidate the central role of interpersonal relatedness as a foundation for self-definition in recovery from psychosis.

Acute Disease↗
PubMed2005

A taxometric investigation of unipolar depression in the national comorbidity survey.

Ongoing debate has questioned whether unipolar depression is a dimensional or categorical phenomenon. Although past studies using taxometric methods have supported a dimensional interpretation, each has suffered from methodological limitations. The present study was designed to overcome these limitations through reanalysis of the National Comorbidity Survey. Two indicator sets were constructed from the depression-relevant questions of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview. Participants who endorsed the lifetime occurrence of significant depressed mood or anhedonia (n=4,577) were submitted to 2 nonredundant taxometric procedures (maximum eigenvalue and means above minus below a cut), additional consistency tests, and recently developed simulation techniques. All results converged on a dimensional solution. The implications of these findings on assessment, treatment, and research design are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Comparison of two random-effects methods of meta-analysis.

Two studies compared the Schmidt-Hunter method of meta-analysis (J. E. Hunter & F. L. Schmidt, 1990) with the method described by L. V. Hedges and J. L. Vevea (1998). Study 1 evaluated estimates of rho, sigmarho, and resulting credibility intervals for both models through Monte Carlo methods. Results showed slight differences between the 2 methods. In Study 2, a reanalysis of published meta-analyses using both methods with several artifact distributions showed that although both choice of technique and type of correction could matter, the technique of meta-analysis used is less influential on the study outcome than is the choice of artifact correction.

Bias↗
PubMed2004

How did it work? Who did it work for? Mediation in the context of a moderated prevention effect for children of divorce.

This study presents a reanalysis of data from an effective preventive intervention for children from divorced families to test mediation of program effects. The study involved 157 children, age 9-12 years, who were randomly assigned to a parenting program or a literature control condition. Program effects to reduce posttest internalizing problems were mediated through improvement in mother-child relationship quality. Program effects to reduce externalizing problems at posttest and 6 months were mediated through improvement in posttest parental methods of discipline and mother-child relationship quality. The study also describes a new methodology to test mediation of Program x Baseline Status interactions. Analyses demonstrate mediation effects primarily for children who began the program with poorer scores on discipline, mother-child relationship quality, and externalizing problems.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Working memory and intelligence--their correlation and their relation: comment on Ackerman, Beier, and Boyle (2005).

On the basis of a meta-analysis of pairwise correlations between working memory tasks and cognitive ability measures, P. L. Ackerman, M. E. Beier, and M. O. Boyle (2005; see record 2004-22408-002) claimed that working memory capacity (WMC) shares less than 25% of its variance with general intelligence (g) and with reasoning ability. In this comment, the authors argue that this is an underestimation because of several methodological shortcomings and biases. A reanalysis of the data reported in Ackerman et al. using the correct statistical procedures demonstrates that g and WMC are very highly correlated. On a conceptual level, the authors point out that WMC should be regarded as an explanatory construct for intellectual abilities. Theories of working memory do not claim that WMC is isomorphic with intelligence factors but that it is a very strong predictor of reasoning ability and also predicts general fluid intelligence and g.

Humans↗
PubMed2005

Working memory capacity and fluid intelligence are strongly related constructs: comment on Ackerman, Beier, and Boyle (2005).

The authors agree with P. L. Ackerman, M. E. Beier, and M. O. Boyle (2005; see record 2004-22408-002) that working memory capacity (WMC) is not isomorphic with general fluid intelligence (Gf) or reasoning ability. However, the WMC and Gf/reasoning constructs are more strongly associated than Ackerman et al. (2005) indicate, particularly when considering the outcomes of latent-variable studies. The authors' reanalysis of 14 such data sets from 10 published studies, representing more than 3,100 young-adult subjects, suggests a strong correlation between WMC and Gf/reasoning factors (median r=.72), indicating that the WMC and Gf constructs share approximately 50% of their variance. This comment also clarifies the authors' "executive attention" view of WMC, it demonstrates that WMC has greater discriminant validity than Ackerman et al. (2005) implied, and it suggests some future directions and challenges for the scientific study of the convergence of WMC, attention control, and intelligence.

Humans↗
PubMed2006

From tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) data to theoretical implications in two steps: when more TOTs means better retrieval.

Two experiments in which participants named pictured objects with difficult or easier names, and a reanalysis and review of published data, reveal that problematic measures used in previous studies obscured the implications of group differences in tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) rates. In Experiment 1, increased age led to more TOTs for difficult but not easy targets. In Experiment 2, bilinguals had more TOTs than monolinguals for easy targets but fewer TOTs for difficult targets. The authors developed a theoretically motivated measure that clarifies the implications of TOT data by linking all responses elicited in the TOT paradigm with either success or failure in completing 2 retrieval steps in current models of language production. The 2-step analysis reveals a common mechanism for the age and bilingualism effects and implies that age has both positive and negative effects on retrieval.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

A theoretical framework for understanding the effects of simultaneous base-rate and payoff manipulations on decision criterion learning in perceptual categorization.

Observers completed perceptual categorization tasks in which base rates and payoffs were manipulated separately or simultaneously across a range of category discriminabilities. Decision criterion estimates from the simultaneous base-rate/payoff conditions were closer to optimal than those predicted from the independence assumption, in line with predictions from the flat-maxima hypothesis. A hybrid model that instantiated the flat-maxima and competition between reward and accuracy maximization hypotheses was applied to the data as well as used in a reanalysis of C. J. Bohil and W.J. Maddox's (2001) study. The hybrid model was superior to a model that incorporated the independence assumption, suggesting that violations of the independence assumption are to be expected and are well captured by the flat-maxima hypothesis, without requiring any additional assumptions.

Decision Making↗
PubMed2006

Does working memory load lead to greater impulsivity? Commentary on Hinson, Jameson, and Whitney (2003).

Previous research by J. M. Hinson, T. L. Jameson, and P. Whitney (2003) demonstrated that a secondary task in a delayed discounting paradigm increased subjects' preference for the immediate reward. J. M. Hinson et al. interpreted their findings as evidence that working memory load results in greater impulsivity. The present authors conducted a reanalysis of the data from J. M. Hinson et al.'s Experiment 1 at the individual-subject level. Difference scores were calculated by subtracting the digit memory load condition from the control condition for k (discounting parameter) and a measure of "erroneous" responses. The results indicated that the secondary task increased random responding, which in turn can account for the increased mean estimates of k. Thus, the data do not support the claim that cognitive load affects impulsivity per se.

Decision Making↗
PubMed2006

Temporal associations and prior-list intrusions in free recall.

When asked to recall the words from a just-presented target list, subjects occasionally recall words that were not on the list. These intrusions either appeared on earlier lists (prior-list intrusions, or PLIs) or had not appeared over the course of the experiment (extra-list intrusions). The authors examined the factors that elicit PLIs in free recall. A reanalysis of earlier studies revealed that PLIs tend to come from semantic associates as well as from recently studied lists, with the rate of PLIs decreasing sharply with list recency. The authors report 3 new experiments in which some items in a given list also appeared on earlier lists. Although repetition enhanced recall of list items, subjects were significantly more likely to make PLIs following the recall of repeated items, suggesting that temporal associations formed in earlier lists can induce recall errors. The authors interpret this finding as evidence for the interacting roles of associative and contextual retrieval processes in recall. Although contextual information helps to focus recall on words in the target list, it does not form an impermeable boundary between current- and prior-list experiences.

Adolescent↗