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PubMed2002

Displacement activities as a behavioral measure of stress in nonhuman primates and human subjects.

Traditionally, research on human stress has relied mostly on physiological and psychological measures with a relatively minor emphasis on the behavioral aspects of the phenomenon. Such an approach makes it difficult to develop valid animal models of the human stress syndrome. A promising approach to the study of the behavioral correlates of stress is to analyze those behavior patterns that ethologists have named displacement activities and that, in primates, consist mostly of self-directed behaviors. In both nonhuman primates and human subjects, displacement behavior appears in situations characterized by social tension and is likely to reflect increased autonomic arousal. Pharmacological studies of nonhuman primates have shown that the frequency of occurrence of displacement behavior is increased by anxiogenic compounds and decreased by anxiolytic drugs. Ethological studies of healthy persons and psychiatric patients during interviews have found that increased displacement behavior not only correlates with a subjective feeling state of anxiety and negative affect but also gives more veridical information about the subject's emotional state than verbal statements and facial expression. The measurement of displacement activities may be a useful complement to the physiological and psychological studies aimed at analyzing the correlates and consequences of stress.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Mutations in CCR5-coding sequences are not associated with SIV carrier status in African nonhuman primates.

African monkeys can be naturally infected with SIV but do not progress to AIDS. Since mutations in the human CCR5 gene have been shown to influence susceptibility to HIV infection and disease progression, we have now investigated whether mutations in CCR5-coding sequences in African nonhuman primates can explain species-specific differences in susceptibility to lentiviral infection. The animals studied comprise chronically infected monkeys corresponding to four natural hosts of SIV (Cercopithecus aethiops, Cercopithecus pygerythrus, Cercopithecus sabaeus, and Cercopithecus tantalus), noninfected animals from three species that are known to be susceptible to SIV infection (Cercopithecus patas, Cercopithecus Ihoesti, and Pan troglodytes), and monkeys of six species that do not carry SIV in the wild (Cercocebus galeritus, Cercocebus aterrimus, Cercopithecus ascanius, Cercopithecus nictitans, Cercopithecus neglectus, and Cercopithecus cephus). We observed a high degree of genetic divergence among the species. The rate of accumulation of amino acid mutations was, however, not higher in SIV carriers than in other nonhuman primates. No homozygous premature stop codons, deletions, or frameshift mutations were detected. In at least two animals, one infected AGM (Cercopithecus tantalus) and one noninfected monkey (Cercocebus aterrimus), the CCR5 alleles identified encode functional proteins, as they were identical in terms of amino acid sequence to that of functional CCR5 reported in the literature. We found no other consistent differences in the genetic variability of CCR5-coding sequences between the nonhuman primates that are carriers of SIV and those that are not.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2005

Lentiviral vector-transduced dendritic cells induce specific T cell response in a nonhuman primate model.

Dendritic cells (DCs) are effective in stimulating and controlling the outcome of T cell responses. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1-based lentiviral vectors can achieve sustained transduction of genes/antigens in dividing and nondividing cells, thus representing a candidate vector for stable expression of antigens in DCs. We previously established conditions for transduction of purified cytokine mobilized rhesus CD34(+) cells in vitro, and transplantation of the autologous transduced cells in a nonhuman primate model in vivo. In the present study, we transplanted DCs derived from EGFP-transduced CD34(+) cells into nonmyeloablated rhesus macaques. Transplantation of DCs stably expressing EGFP into autologous animals induces persistent, long-lived (up to 100 weeks) EGFP-specific T cell responses. Of note, no humoral responses against EGFP are detected in the transplanted animals. These studies provide, to our knowledge, the first demonstration that lentiviral transduction of CD34(+) progenitor cells subsequently differentiated to DCs is capable of priming a specific T cell response in a nonhuman primate in vivo. Taken together, our data provide formal in vivo evidence that lentivirus-transduced dendritic cells represent a potential approach in eliciting cellular immune responses in primates.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Behavioral methods used in the study of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid nutrition in primate infants.

Domains of behavior may be broadly categorized as sensory, motor, motivational and arousal, cognitive, and social. Differences in these domains occur because of changes in brain structure and function. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6-23) and arachidonic acid (AA; 20:4-26) are major structural components of the brain that decrease when diets deficient in the essential fatty acids (EFA) alpha-linolenic acid and linoleic acid are consumed. Early electrophysiologic and behavioral studies in EFA-deficient rodents showed behavioral effects attributable to lower-than-normal accumulation of DHA and AA in the brain. More recently, electrophysiologic and behavioral studies in EFA-deficient primate infants and analogous studies in human infants have been conducted. The human infants were fed formulas that could result in lower-than-optimal accumulation of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) in the brain during critical periods of development. This article describes the behavioral methods that have been used to study primate infants. These methods may be unfamiliar to many physicians and nutritionists who wish to read and interpret the human studies. The behavioral outcomes that have been evaluated in LCPUFA studies represent only a fraction of those available in the behavioral sciences. Specific developmental domains have been studied less often than global development, even though studies of nonhuman primates deficient in EFAs suggest that the former provide more information that could help target the underlying mechanisms of action of LCPUFAs in the brain.

Animal Nutritional Physiological Phenomena↗
PubMed2002

Identification of two novel primate-specific genes in DSCR.

We recently helped to complete the sequence of human chromosome 21 at a very high level of accuracy. Using this sequence we identified two novel genes, designated DSCR9 and DSCR10, in the so-called Down Syndrome Critical Region (DSCR) by computational gene prediction and subsequent cDNA cloning. Both DSCR9 and DSCR10 are expressed preferentially in testis and encode functionally unknown proteins with 149 and 87 amino acid residues, respectively. Zoo blot analysis suggested that both genes are exclusive to primate genomes such as chimpanzee, gorilla, orangutan, crab-eating monkey and African green monkey but are not present in other non-primate mammals including mouse, dog, cat, and chicken. Comparative genomic sequence analysis of DSCR9 and DSCR10 with the corresponding mouse syntenic region confirmed the lack of these genes in the mouse. These results strongly suggest that DSCR9 and DSCR10 have emerged as a new class of gene in the primate lineage during evolution.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2000

Postreproductive life predicted by primate patterns.

Regression analyses of primate life spans on recently revised female body and brain masses of Old World primates predict a human life span of between 72 years and 91 years-estimates that exceed the age of human menopause (and prior estimates) by well over 20 years. The life spans predicted from body and brain sizes in the early Homo suggest that postreproductive life spans predate Homo sapiens Among anthropoid primates, residual longevity after body and brain effects are controlled is greatest for Homo and for the New World monkeys of the genus Cebus. Body and brain masses predict a 25-year life span for Cebus, although recorded life spans exceed 50 years. Cebus are geographically widespread, have a female-bonded social organization convergent with Old World monkeys, and are primarily frugivorous, though the diet is heavily supplemented with vertebrate prey. Regressions of phylogenetically independent contrasts indicate that body mass and brain mass relationships to longevity remain significant when phylogeny is controlled and that brain mass is a more robust predictor than body mass. These data are new in terms of the completeness of species representation, more reliable body masses, presentation of various comparison group regressions, and control for phylogenetic independence.

Aged↗
PubMed1996

Primate origin of the CMT1A-REP repeat and analysis of a putative transposon-associated recombinational hotspot.

The CMT1A-REP repeat on chromosome 17p11.2-12 is proposed to mediate misalignment and meiotic unequal crossover leading to a 1.5 Mb pair duplication associated with Charcot-Marie-Tooth neuropathy type 1A (CMT1A) and a reciprocal deletion associated with hereditary neuropathy with liability to pressure palsies (HNPP). Restriction enzyme endonuclease mapping indicated that the size of the CMT1A-REP repeat is approximately 24 kb and DNA sequence analysis determined that the repeat is flanked by inverted Alu sequences. Full length Alu sequences are present at the centromeric ends of the proximal and distal CMT1A-REP repeats and at the telomeric end of the distal repeat. A truncated Alu sequence is present at the telomeric end of the proximal repeat suggesting that the distal CMT1A-REP repeat is the progenitor copy. The crossover breakpoints for a series of unrelated CMT1A and HNPP patients were mapped using a variant SacI site found only in the proximal CMT1A-REP repeat. Seventy-six percent (66/85) of patients had breakpoints which mapped to a 3.2 kb interval, providing further evidence for a recombinational hotspot within the CMT1A-REP repeat. A mariner-like element was mapped within the CMT1A-REP repeat approximately 700 bp centromeric to the 3.2 kb interval containing the hotspot. Analysis of this sequence suggested that it does not encode a functional transposon. By Northern blot analysis a cloned fragment from the CMT1A-REP repeat containing the mariner-like sequence detected a 2.2 kb transcript only in testis. Two cDNA clones which contain the mariner-like element were isolated from a human testis cDNA library. These clones which are interrupted by Alu and other repeats appear to be non-functional versions of the transposon. The functional relationship of the mariner-like element to the recombinational hotspot remains unknown. The origin of the CMT1A-REP repeat was investigated through an analysis of homologous sequences in non-human primates. Southern blot analysis indicated that the chimpanzee has two copies of a CMT1A-REP-like sequence, whereas gorilla, orangutan, and gibbon have a single copy. A high degree of conservation amongst non-human primates for restriction fragments specific to the human distal CMT1A-REP repeat provides further evidence that the distal repeat is the progenitor copy. The mariner-like sequence was detected in association with the CMT1A-REP sequence in all primates studied suggesting that the mariner-like element was introduced into the progenitor CMT1A-REP sequence prior to emergence of the proximal and distal CMT1A-REP repeats. These observations suggest that CMT1A-REP sequence appeared as a repeat before the divergence of chimpanzee and human, but after gorilla and human around 6 to 7 million years ago.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

A primate-specific acceleration in the evolution of the caspase-dependent apoptosis pathway.

Programmed cell death, or apoptosis, plays an essential role in mammalian development, especially the development of the nervous system. Here, we systematically examine the molecular evolution of the mammalian intrinsic apoptosis program. We divided the program into its several constituent pathways and examined the evolution of each pathway in diverse mammalian taxa spanning primates, rodents and carnivores. We observed that genes involved in the caspase-dependent apoptosis pathway stood out in several ways. First, these genes display an accelerated rate of protein sequence evolution in primates relative to rodents or carnivores. Secondly, this acceleration is most pronounced along the lineage leading to humans, and it is associated with signatures of positive selection. Finally, several genes in this pathway, including APAF1, CASP9 and CASP3, have been shown to be associated with dramatic defects in neuronal cell number and brain size when mutated in mice. These observations suggest the possibility that evolutionary changes in the caspase-dependent apoptosis pathway may have contributed to brain evolution in primates and humans. Our results also lend further support to the hypothesis that genes regulating brain size during development might have played a particularly important role in transforming brain size during evolution.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Blastocyst invasion and the stromal response in primates.

One of the most remarkable processes associated with the establishment of pregnancy in the primate is the process of decidualization. This transformation of a stromal fibroblast to a fully differentiated decidual cell is required for implantation and embryo survival in early pregnancy. Although the morphological and biochemical characteristics of the primate decidual cell have been extensively studied, the precise cellular, biochemical and molecular signals required for this transformation have yet to be elucidated. During decidualization, stromal cells first proliferate and then differentiate. Based on our extensive in-vivo and ongoing in-vitro studies, we have suggested that the process of decidualization in the baboon can be divided into two distinct phases. The initial proliferative phase is characterized by the expression of the cytoskeletal protein alpha smooth muscle actin (alphaSMA) in the stromal fibroblasts and is independent of the presence of the conceptus. The second phase of differentiation is characterized by the expression of insulin-like growth factor binding protein-1 (IGFBP-1) and the down-regulation of alphaSMA in the decidualized stromal fibroblast. The expression of IGFBP-1 is dependent on the presence of the conceptus in vivo and is regulated by hormones and cAMP in vitro. We have postulated that, during the initial phase of stromal cell differentiation, alphaSMA expression is regulated by the interaction between stromal cell integrins with the secreted extracellular matrix proteins (ECM). In response to pregnancy a trophoblast 'factor', mediated by cAMP signal transduction, induces IGFBP-1 expression in decidualizing stromal fibroblasts. This induction of IGFBP-1 is associated with the disappearance of alphaSMA and de-novo protein synthesis. Our comparative studies suggest that the process of decidualization in the human and baboon involve similar mechanisms. However, the metabolic pathways required for decidualization in the two species appear to differ in their degree of sensitivity to external stimuli. This review focuses on the cellular events that may potentially regulate decidualization in the primate and its role in regulating trophoblast migration.

Actins↗
PubMed2003

Models of focal cerebral ischemia in the nonhuman primate.

Ischemic stroke is a uniquely human disease syndrome. Models of focal cerebral ischemia developed in nonhuman primates provide clinically relevant platforms for investigating pathophysiological alterations associated with ischemic brain injury, microvascular responses, treatment responses, and clinically relevant outcomes that may be appropriate for ischemic stroke patients. A considerable number of advantages attend the use of nonhuman primate models in cerebral vascular research. Appropriate development of such models requires neurosurgical expertise to produce single or multiple vascular occlusions. A number of experimentally and clinically accessible outcomes can be measured, including neurological deficits, neuron injury, evidence of non-neuronal cell injury, infarction volume, real-time imaging of injury development, vascular responses, regional cerebral blood flow, microvascular events, the relation between neuron and vascular events, and behavioral outcomes. Nonhuman primate models of focal cerebral ischemia provide excellent opportunities for understanding the vascular and cellular pathophysiology of cerebral ischemic injury, which resembles human ischemic stroke, and the appropriate study of pharmacological interventions in a human relevant setting.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Environmental enrichment for nonhuman primates: theory and application.

Investigators have an obligation to promote the psychological well-being of nonhuman primates used in research. Considerable emphasis has been placed on providing nonhuman primates with enriched environments as a means to achieve this objective. A framework is provided that consists of a set of hypotheses about well-being, and the extent to which exposure to various enrichment devices and procedures actually promotes well-being is evaluated. Two hypotheses are concerned with fostering species-typical behavior: use (versus nonuse) of the enrichment, and whether use of enrichment helps normalize other aspects of the behavioral repertoire. Two additional hypotheses are concerned with abnormal behavior: whether currently existing enrichment lowers levels of abnormal behavior, and whether it prevents the behavior. This framework is applied to various enrichment strategies ranging from toys and foraging devices to social interaction. Most devices are used by nonhuman primates and thus constitute an important way to enrich the captive environment. However, enrichment devices vary as to their effectiveness in normalizing the behavioral repertoire and eliminating abnormal behavior. Only social contact satisfies the goal of promoting a wide variety of species-typical activities while at the same time reducing or preventing the development of abnormal behavior.

Animal Husbandry↗
PubMed2005

Serendipitous insights involving nonhuman primates.

Serendipity is discussed as a form of controlled chaos, a phenomenon in a class with synchronicity and other actions affecting research in terms of theory versus observation (e.g., "optional stopping"). Serendipity is a fundamental aspect of basic research, a profitable and normal outcome in the context of "informed observation." The serendipitous finding fits into the following pattern: it is unanticipated, anomalous, and strategic. All observations that have meaning must fit into some context in the observer's mind or suggest a revolutionary new context. It is critically important to maintain access to the resources provided by established primate centers and similar laboratories to capitalize in a timely way on serendipitous findings and to benefit from valuable discoveries made in more directly targeted development investments. Examples are given of serendipitous insights gained in experimentation and observation relative to nonhuman primate research, including both broad and narrow topics. Genomics, which uses comparison-based strategies and capitalizes on the DNA sequences of genetic information, presents what might seem the basis for endless serendipity because nonhuman primates are likely to share most genes present in the human genome. Other topics discussed include infant behavior, birth periodicity, leprosy, cystic fibrosis, environmental enrichment, endocrinology, drug development, and the rapidly expanding study of infectious diseases and pathogen-based bioterrorism.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Chromosome 6 phylogeny in primates and centromere repositioning.

A panel of 15 human BAC/PAC probes, covering the entire chromosome 6, was used in FISH experiments on great apes and on representatives of Old World monkeys, New World monkeys, and lemurs to delineate the chromosome 6 phylogeny in primates. The domestic cat was used as an outgroup. The analysis showed a high marker order conservation, with few rearrangements required to reconcile the hypothesized chromosome 6 organization in primate ancestor with marker arrangement in all the examined species. Contrary to this simple evolutionary scenario, however, the centromere was found to be located in three distinct regions, without any evidence of chromosomal rearrangement that would account for its movement. One of the two centromere repositioning events occurred in great apes ancestor. The centromere moved from 6p22.1 to the present day location after the inversion event that differentiated marker order of the primate ancestor from the ancestor of Catarrhini. A cluster of intrachromosomal segmental duplications was found at 6p22.1, scattered in a region of about 9 Mb, which we interpret as remains of duplicons that flanked the ancestral centromere. Our data, therefore, suggest that some duplicon clusters found in noncentromeric/nontelomeric locations may represent traces of evolutionary silenced centromeres that inactivated after the occurrence of a centromere repositioning. In addition, the neocentromere emergence we have documented in Old World monkeys at 6q24.3 appears to have arisen and progressed without affecting the displaced flanking sequences.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Ancestral sequence reconstruction in primate mitochondrial DNA: compositional bias and effect on functional inference.

Reconstruction of ancestral DNA and amino acid sequences is an important means of inferring information about past evolutionary events. Such reconstructions suggest changes in molecular function and evolutionary processes over the course of evolution and are used to infer adaptation and convergence. Maximum likelihood (ML) is generally thought to provide relatively accurate reconstructed sequences compared to parsimony, but both methods lead to the inference of multiple directional changes in nucleotide frequencies in primate mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). To better understand this surprising result, as well as to better understand how parsimony and ML differ, we constructed a series of computationally simple "conditional pathway" methods that differed in the number of substitutions allowed per site along each branch, and we also evaluated the entire Bayesian posterior frequency distribution of reconstructed ancestral states. We analyzed primate mitochondrial cytochrome b (Cyt-b) and cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) genes and found that ML reconstructs ancestral frequencies that are often more different from tip sequences than are parsimony reconstructions. In contrast, frequency reconstructions based on the posterior ensemble more closely resemble extant nucleotide frequencies. Simulations indicate that these differences in ancestral sequence inference are probably due to deterministic bias caused by high uncertainty in the optimization-based ancestral reconstruction methods (parsimony, ML, Bayesian maximum a posteriori). In contrast, ancestral nucleotide frequencies based on an average of the Bayesian set of credible ancestral sequences are much less biased. The methods involving simpler conditional pathway calculations have slightly reduced likelihood values compared to full likelihood calculations, but they can provide fairly unbiased nucleotide reconstructions and may be useful in more complex phylogenetic analyses than considered here due to their speed and flexibility. To determine whether biased reconstructions using optimization methods might affect inferences of functional properties, ancestral primate mitochondrial tRNA sequences were inferred and helix-forming propensities for conserved pairs were evaluated in silico. For ambiguously reconstructed nucleotides at sites with high base composition variability, ancestral tRNA sequences from Bayesian analyses were more compatible with canonical base pairing than were those inferred by other methods. Thus, nucleotide bias in reconstructed sequences apparently can lead to serious bias and inaccuracies in functional predictions.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Two primate-specific small non-protein-coding RNAs in transgenic mice: neuronal expression, subcellular localization and binding partners.

In a rare occasion a single chromosomal locus was targeted twice by independent Alu-related retroposon insertions, and in both cases supported neuronal expression of the respective inserted genes encoding small non-protein coding RNAs (npcRNAs): BC200 RNA in anthropoid primates and G22 RNA in the Lorisoidea branch of prosimians. To avoid primate experimentation, we generated transgenic mice to study neuronal expression and protein binding partners for BC200 and G22 npcRNAs. The BC200 gene, with sufficient upstream flanking sequences, is expressed in transgenic mouse brain areas comparable to those in human brain, and G22 gene, with upstream flanks, has a similar expression pattern. However, when all upstream regions of the G22 gene were removed, expression was completely abolished, despite the presence of intact internal RNA polymerase III promoter elements. Transgenic BC200 RNA is transported into neuronal dendrites as it is in human brain. G22 RNA, almost twice as large as BC200 RNA, has a similar subcellular localization. Both transgenically expressed npcRNAs formed RNP complexes with poly(A) binding protein and the heterodimer SRP9/14, as does BC200 RNA in human. These observations strongly support the possibility that the independently exapted npcRNAs have similar functions, perhaps in translational regulation of dendritic protein biosynthesis in neurons of the respective primates.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Molecular remodeling of members of the relaxin family during primate evolution.

Employing comparative analysis of the cDNA-coding sequences of the unique preprorelaxin of the Afro-lorisiform Galago crassicaudatus and the Malagasy lemur Varecia variegata and the relaxin-like factor (RLF) of G. crassicaudatus, we demonstrated distinct differences in the dynamics of molecular remodeling of both hormones during primate evolution. The lorisiform and lemuriform preprorelaxin sequences encoded identical hormones, providing the first endocrinological evidence for the monophyletic origin of all Strepsirrhini. Structural analysis revealed the lemuriform members of the relaxin family to be potentially bioactive single-gene products. In contrast to the "two-prong" relaxin receptor-binding motif (RELVR) present within the B-domains of other primate relaxins, strepsirrhine relaxin contained a unique "three-prong" motif (RRLIR) with highest sequence homology to the receptor-binding motif of the evolutionarily much older skate relaxin. In contrast to relaxin, the RLF molecule was highly conserved during primate evolution and contained within its B-domain the putative relaxin receptor-binding motif and a pentameric sequence implicated in binding to specific RLF receptors. Mutually exclusive expression of strepsirrhine preprorelaxin and RLF were observed in the fetal villous trophoblast cells of the strepsirrhine placenta and postpubertal testicular Leydig cells, respectively, reflecting distinct functional roles for both hormones within the reproductive tract of Strepsirrhini.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2002

Alpha1,4-fucosyltransferase activity: a significant function in the primate lineage has appeared twice independently.

In the animal kingdom the enzymes that catalyze the formation of alpha1,4 fucosylated-glycoconjugates are known only in apes (chimpanzee) and humans. They are encoded by FUT3 and FUT5 genes, two members of the Lewis FUT5-FUT3-FUT6 gene cluster, which had originated by duplications of an alpha3 ancestor gene. In order to explore more precisely the emergence of the alpha1,4 fucosylation, new Lewis-like fucosyltransferase genes were studied in species belonging to the three main primate groups. Two Lewis-like genes were found in brown and ruffed lemurs (prosimians) as well as in squirrel monkey (New World monkey). In the latter, one gene encodes an enzyme which transfers fucose only in alpha1,3 linkage, whereas the other is a pseudogene. Three genes homologous to chimpanzee and human Lewis genes were identified in rhesus macaque (Old World monkey), and only one encodes an alpha3/4-fucosyltransferase. The ability of new primate enzymes to transfer fucose in alpha1,3 or alpha1,3/4 linkage confirms that the amino acid R or W in the acceptor-binding motif "HH(R/W)(D/E)" is required for the type 1/type 2 acceptor specificity. Expression of rhesus macaque genes proved that fucose transfer in alpha1,4 linkage is not restricted to the hominoid family and may be extended to other Old World monkeys. Moreover, the presence of only one enzyme supporting the alpha1,4 fucosylation in rhesus macaque versus two enzymes in hominoids suggests that this function occurred twice independently during primate evolution.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed1996

Amylase gene structures in primates: retroposon insertions and promoter evolution.

Amylase transcription in the human salivary gland results from the evolutionary juxtaposition of two inserted elements, a gamma-actin pseudogene and an endogenous retrovirus, to create an unusual salivary-specific promoter. We utilized these structures as molecular tags to characterize the amylase genes in extant primates by polymerase chain reaction amplification of promoter fragments from genomic DNA. Six distinct amylase promoter structures were identified, which allowed us to infer the structures of common ancestors and trace the evolution of the modern human amylase promoters. Our data show that integration of the pseudogene and retrovirus were evolutionarily recent events. The gamma-actin pseudogene integrated after the divergence of the New World monkeys from the primate ancestral tree, and the retrovirus integrated later, after the divergence of the Old World monkeys. The New World monkey amylase promoter represents the mammalian amylase precursor structure before integration of the two retroposons. Two distinct amylase genes were identified in the Old World monkeys, one with a complete gamma-actin pseudogene insert and another novel structure with a truncation of the gamma-actin sequences. We demonstrated abundant amylase expression in the saliva of an Old World monkey, indicating that the endogenous retrovirus is not required for amylase transcription in the primate salivary gland.

Actins↗