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PubMed1982

Sex roles and type A behavior.

Examined relationships between sex-role identification and Type A behavior. Based on Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) scores, Ss (N = 64) were categorized as Androgynous, Masculine, Feminine, or Undifferentiated; the extent of Type A behavior was assessed via the Behavior Activity Profile. After biological sex had been covaried out, it was found that the Masculine group had significantly higher Type A scores than any of the other three groups. Also, Type A behavior correlated significantly with both the Masculinity and Femininity scales of the BSRI even though the scales themselves were statistically independent. It is suggested that identification with masculine but not feminine traits, while perhaps conducive to psychological health, may be dysfunctional in terms of long-term medical consequences.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Eating disorder symptomatology and gender role orientation.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the current study was to investigate associations between gender role orientation and eating pathology in a sample of females with eating disorders (ED). METHODS: Sixty-eight women with anorexia nervosa and 123 women with bulimia nervosa completed the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), the Eating Disorders Inventory, and the Sexual Anxiety subscale of the Anorexia Nervosa Inventory for Self-Rating. RESULTS: All three subscales of the BSRI--femininity, masculinity, and social desirability--correlated negatively with self-reported ED behavior and attitudes. Individuals with high levels of androgyny (i.e., those scoring high on femininity and masculinity) reported lower levels of ED symptomatology compared with undifferentiated individuals (i.e., those scoring low on femininity and masculinity), who showed higher levels of ED symptoms. DISCUSSION: Femininity and masculinity, although independent traits, should not be considered isolated from each other in the context of ED. In females with ED, androgyny appears to be associated with lower levels of ED symptoms. Self-esteem may play a mediating role in this association.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms and sperm motility in Mytilus edulis (Bivalvia: Mytilidae).

The system of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) inheritance in Mytilus and other bivalves, termed doubly uniparental inheritance (DUI), is novel among animals. Males pass on their male transmitted (M-type) mtDNA from fathers to their sons whereas females pass on their female transmitted (F-type) mtDNA from mothers to both sons and daughters. Thus, Mytilus males contain two distinct types of mtDNA. Interestingly, sperm contains only the paternal mtDNA. Phylogenetic analysis has shown that some female types have been able to switch their route of inheritance. These "recently masculinized" mitochondrial genomes behave as a typical M-type in that they are transmitted from generation to generation through sperm. Because the "recently masculinized" and "standard" male mitotypes in M. edulis exhibit approximately 8.7% amino acid sequence divergence, we hypothesized that these differences could affect mitochondrial, and hence sperm, functions. Furthermore, since recently masculinized mitotypes have been shown to replace standard male types periodically over evolutionary timescales, we tested the hypothesis that sperm swimming speeds would be greater for males with recently masculinized M-type genomes. Sperm activity was videotaped, digitized and tracked. A linear mixed effects model found no significant difference in linear velocities or curvilinear speeds between the mitotypes suggesting that swimming speeds are similar for both in the period shortly after spawning.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Early estrogen treatment alone causes female zebra finches to produce learned, male-like vocalizations.

The male zebra finch produces learned song and long calls while the female does not. This difference in behavior is believed to result from the action of sex steroids on brain areas responsible for vocal production and learning. In this study, the female zebra finch was used to explore further the specific role sex steroids play in vocal masculinization. We show that estradiol (E2) treatment at birth was sufficient to masculinize the vocal behavior of female zebra finches. Thirteen of 18 females treated with E2 as nestlings produced song-like vocalizations. Fifteen of 18 produced long calls with male-typical features. The degree of masculinization varied between individuals. Of the 15 early E2 females that produced at least one type of male-like vocalization, 7 showed evidence of vocal learning from their tutors. The ability of E2 to cause masculinization of vocal behavior was age dependent: treatment from birth was most effective, treatment at 20 days of age was partially effective, and treatment in adulthood was ineffective. The effect of subsequent testosterone exposure in adulthood differed depending on the quality of the vocalization produced after E2 treatment alone. These results suggest that E2 may play a more important role than previously thought in the development of sex differences in vocal behavior. Furthermore, this study demonstrates that exogenous E2 treatment alone can induce vocal learning.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1995

Androgen biosynthesis and secretion in developing Xenopus laevis.

In the frog, Xenopus laevis, castration or anti-androgen treatment during late tadpole or early juvenile stages blocks masculinization of vocal neuroeffectors in males while exogenous androgen or a testicular transplant masculinizes vocal neuroeffectors in females. To elucidate the relation between androgen secretion and the process of masculinization, we measured androgens by radioimmunoassay in adults, juveniles, and tadpoles. In adult females, values for both testosterone (T) and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) were essentially identical during the winter and the summer while in males, summer values for both androgens were 7 to 8x winter values. For DHT, circulating values in males significantly exceeded those in females in both winter and summer while for T, values differed significantly only in summer. Sex differences in circulating androgen arise at late juvenile stages (PM4 and PM5); T values are higher in males than in females and higher, for both sexes, in winter than in summer. During early juvenile stages (PM1-PM3), there were no seasonal or sex differences in circulating androgens. While androgens were detected in liver during late tadpole stages (stage 56-66), no sex differences were apparent. Androgens can be detected in tadpole tissues, as early as tadpole stage 47. delta 5-3 beta-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (HSD) histochemistry indicates that tadpole gonads and interrenals (and, to a much lesser extent, kidneys) are the only tissues capable of steroid biosynthesis. Interrenal HSD activity was present throughout tadpole development; in gonads, activity began before sexual differentiation. Thin-layer chromatographic separation of steroid metabolites following in vitro incubation with radioactive precursors indicated that the interrenals were more active than the gonads in tadpoles but not in juveniles. Thus, interrenals and gonads of developing X. laevis can synthesize delta 4 steroids (which include androgens) and, from early tadpole stages, are capable of metabolizing pregnenolone and testosterone, early and late compounds in the steroid synthetic pathway, respectively. The absence of dramatic sex differences in T or DHT levels during late tadpole and early juvenile stages suggests that while necessary, androgen secretion is not sufficient for masculinization of vocal neuroeffectors.

Aging↗
PubMed1997

Sexual bipotentiality of developing ovaries in the terrestrial isopod Armadillidium vulgare (Malacostraca, Crustacea).

The androgenic glands (AG) of crustaceans are responsible for differentiation of male sexual characters. The process of gonadal differentiation in females was studied morphologically in Armadillidium vulgare given a masculinizing AG implant. Gonadal masculinization was induced by implantation of an AG into females at various stages of postembryonic development. Functional sex reversal always occurred when an AG was implanted into females that were in stages 5 and 6 of development. Partial formation of testes was induced after implantation of an AG into stage 7 and 8 females. When an AG was implanted into a stage 9 female, development of a functional testis was not observed, but the ovaries were partially masculinized. These results show that after the onset of sex differentiation female gonads retain sexual bipotentiality through several stages of postembryonic development. Implantation of one AG into a female is enough to induce gonadal masculinization and sex reversal in this species. The AG implant up to stage 6 (3.4 mm in body length) is an experimental procedure certain to transform a genetic female into a functional male. The process of gonadal development in female A. vulgare is discussed.

Androgens↗
PubMed1999

Effects of embryonic treatment with fadrozole on phenotype of gonads, syrinx, and neural song system in zebra finches.

Previous studies have found that treatment of zebra finch embryos with an aromatase inhibitor on Day 5 or 8 of incubation caused partial sex reversal of gonadal phenotype in females. These females possessed both testicular and ovarian tissue, and the development of the neural circuit for song remained feminine. The present study attempted more complete gonadal reversal by treating zebra finch embryos earlier, on Day 3 of incubation, with Fadrozole (CGS 16949A), an aromatase inhibitor, or with saline. We examined the phenotype of the syrinx (androgen-dependent vocal organ), the gonads, and the telencephallic neural song system in 100-day-old birds. Treated females typically possessed a left ovotestis and a right testis, and significantly larger syringes than control females. The histology and steroid synthetic enzyme activity of the testicular tissue in treated females were quite masculine and similar to that of control males. At the time of sacrifice, the plasma concentrations of testosterone and estradiol for fadrozole-treated females did not differ from those of control females, but dihydrotestosterone was lower in treated females. Despite the large amount of functional testicular tissue and a masculine syrinx, the volumes and soma sizes of song system nuclei (HVC, RA) in treated females remained feminine. These results suggest that testicular secretions masculinize the syrinx, but are not sufficient to masculinize the song system in zebra finches.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Sexual differentiation of the zebra finch song system parallels genetic, not gonadal, sex.

Mechanisms regulating sexual differentiation of the zebra finch song system present an intriguing puzzle. Masculine development of brain regions and behavior can be induced in genetic females by posthatching estradiol treatment. That result is consistent with the hypothesis that estradiol, converted within the brain from testicular androgen via the aromatase enzyme, masculinizes neural structure and function. In contrast, treatment during specific stages of development with the aromatase inhibitor Fadrozole has not prevented masculine development, and the presence of testicular tissue in genetic females did not induce masculine organization of neuroanatomy or singing behavior. Fadrozole treatments in those previous studies were limited, however, and most genetic females had both ovarian and testicular tissue. The present experiments were designed to provide increased aromatase inhibition and to reliably produce genetic females with only testicular tissue. Eggs received a single injection at a later age or with higher doses of Fadrozole than had been used previously. Some embryos were exposed to Fadrozole more frequently by either injecting eggs on 2 days of development or dipping them for 10-12 days in Fadrozole. Finally, in some individuals from Fadrozole-treated eggs, the left gonad was removed, leaving each genetic male and female with a single right testis. None of these treatments significantly affected development of the song system compared to appropriate control groups. These results suggest that sexual differentiation of the zebra finch song system is not regulated by embryonic aromatase activity or by gonadal secretions and instead involves events that need not be mediated by steroid hormones.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

Sex differences in the effectiveness of elaborative strategy use: knowledge access comparisons.

Dual-task procedures-elaborative strategy use and finger-tapping-were used to examine both recall and mental effort demands of elaboration strategy use with equal numbers of boys and girls at grades two and three. Knowledge-base access was examined by comparing different item types in the associative learning list: masculine, feminine, and mixed. Results showed that boys and girls did not differ in their recall of arbitrarily paired items (e.g., mixed pairs). A Sex by Item Type (masculine vs feminine) interaction, however, revealed that for feminine pairs girls recalled more than boys, whereas for masculine pairs no sex difference was observed. Finger tapping interference scores indexed mental effort. Similar to the recall findings, results indicated that the elaboration of feminine pairs required less mental effort by girls in contrast to boys. Elaboration of masculine pairs was not associated with a sex difference. The results were discussed in terms of sex differences in knowledge-base access.

Child↗
PubMed1980

Cytochemical correlates of structural sexual dimorphism in glandular tissues of the mouse.

Circulating androgens are known to effect a sexual dimorphism of the submandibular gland and kidney of the mouse. Enzyme histocytochemical differences that correlate with these structural changes have been the subject of much study, especially in the kidney. In the present study, emphasis was placed on the hypogonadic effects of diabetes mellitus on the submandibular gland and kidney of C57Bl/KsJ db/db inbred mice with an autosomal recessive disease resembling maturity onset human diabetes mellitus. These glands of adult diabetic mice of both sexes were compared with those of unafflicted heterozygous littermates. The mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase and peroxisomal and cytoplasmic catalase were studied in their submandibular glands and kidneys. The parasympathetic innervation of the submandibular glands was studied by a histochemical method for acetylcholinesterase. The extensive differentiation of striated ducts of the submandibular gland into granular tubules in the postpubertal male mouse was readily evident with the cytochrome oxidase procedure. This differentiation resulted in ductal staining patterns characteristic of the sexes. Alteration of these patterns suggested that demasculinization or feminization was occuring in the male diabetic mice and that masculinization or virilization (defeminization) was occurring in the female diabetics. Similarly, in kidney, study of the parietal epithelium of Bowman's capsule revealed feminization in the male diabetics and masculinization in the female diabetics. With the catalase procedure, a dramatic sexual dimorphism was observed in the kidneys of the heterozygous unafflicted mice. Peroxisomal staining of epithelial cells of the proximal convoluted tubules was much more intense in the outer medulla of the male than of the female. In kidneys of the diabetics, the staining patterns again suggested that feminization of the male and masculinization of the female kidneys had occurred. On the other hand, neither a sexual dichotomy nor effects due to diabetes could be observed in the characteristic catalase staining observed in the luminal epithelial cells of submandibular gland distal ducts. The parasympathetic innervation of the submandibular gland, as revealed by the acetylcholinesterase method, was also markedly sexually dimorphic in the unafflicted mice. This was due to the more extensive innervation of the larger granular ducts characteristic of male than of the smaller striated ducts of the female. As a result of diabetes, the innervation and duct size decreased in the submandibular gland of the male, suggesting feminization, whereas they increased in the female suggesting masculinization. These changes were consistent with those observed in sumandibular gland with the cytochrome oxidase procedure. Attempts were made to interrelate all of the enzyme histochemical changes observed in submandibular gland and kidney with the weights of these glands, sex, gonadal weights, diabetic status and urinary protein excretion...

Acetylcholinesterase↗
PubMed1983

Sex-related motor behavior: effects on social impressions and social cooperation.

Advances have been made recently in the measurement of sex-related motor behaviors (i.e., sex-typed ways of standing, sitting, walking, and gesturing). While these behaviors are an important dependent variable (e.g., as a measure of sex role), they can also be viewed as an independent variable. The present paper reports two experiments on the effect of sex-related motor behaviors. In the first, videotapes of males and females behaving in extremely sex-typed ways (both "masculine" and "feminine") were rated on a number of dimensions (e.g., sexual orientation, likeability). In the second, male and female confederates behaving in extremely sex-typed ways approached people and asked for their cooperation in filling out a long survey. Females showing "masculine" motor behavior were thought to be more masculine and unnatural appearing but also elicited significantly more cooperation than when acting feminine. Males showing "feminine" mannerisms were thought to be feminine, unnatural, unlikeable, unconfident, and probably homosexual, and elicited less actual cooperation than when acting masculine. In general, cross-sex motor behavior had mixed social effects with females and consistently negative social effects with males.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

Androgyny and psychological well-being among older and younger Japanese adults.

The present study examined Gutmann's role reversal theory and Sinnott's role blurring (androgyny) theory. A total of 384 Japanese community aged were compared to 289 students using the Bem Sex Role Inventory. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale was used to measure psychological well-being. Masculinity was higher among men than women, and the old showed higher femininity than the young. However, no significant cohort by sex interaction was observed in either masculine or feminine scores. To examine the relationship between androgyny and psychological well-being, subjects were classified into androgynous, masculine, feminine and undifferentiated groups. Analysis of variance (sex role typing x sex x cohort) on self-esteem revealed a significant sex role typing effect. The androgynous men and women possessed the highest self-esteem, followed by the masculine, feminine and undifferentiated men and women, in this order. Our results supported Sinnott's but not Gutmann's theory.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Sex, gender role orientation, gender role attitudes and suicidal thoughts in three generations. A general population study.

BACKGROUND: Suicide and other suicidal behaviours are markedly (though differently) patterned by gender. The increase in young male suicide rates in many countries has heightened interest in whether suicidal behaviours and ideation (thoughts) are related to masculinity. Relatively little research has explored the relationship between gender role attitudes and orientation and suicidal behaviours and ideation. Most research in this area has been conducted with young people. OBJECTIVE: We investigated whether gender role orientation (masculinity and femininity scores) and gender role attitudes were related to the reporting of serious suicidal thoughts in three generations (early adulthood, and early and late middle age) in a community sample. METHODS: Subjects (653 men and women aged around 23 years, 754 aged around 43 years, 722 aged around 63 years) completed home interviews with nurses as part of an ongoing longitudinal community-based study of social factors and health. These included measures of suicidal ideation (thoughts), attitudes to traditional gender roles, and a validated measure of gender role orientation (masculinity and femininity scores). RESULTS: The prevalence of serious suicidal thoughts was higher in early adulthood (10% men, 15% women) than in early (4% men, 8% women) and late (6% men, 5% women) middle age. In early adulthood only sex was significantly related to suicidal thoughts, with women at higher risk (adjusted OR 1.74, 95% CI 1.01-3.00). In early middle age masculinity scores were negatively related to suicidal thoughts (adjusted OR for each unit increase in score 0.65: 95% CI 0.46-0.93), and more traditional views on gender roles were positively associated with suicidal thoughts (adjusted OR 1.48: 95% CI 1.07-2.04). In late middle age trends were in the same direction as in early middle age, but were not statistically significant. Femininity scores were unrelated to serious suicidal thoughts at any age. CONCLUSION: The high rates of suicidal thoughts amongst men and women in early adulthood point to the importance of understanding mental health problems at this age. The results raise a number of questions and suggest that suicide researchers should pay more attention to gender roles and attitudes in older adults.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Physical health, self-reliance, and emotional control as moderators of the relationship between locus of control and mental health among men treated for prostate cancer.

This investigation examined the moderating effects of physical health and scripts for masculinity (i.e., self-reliance and emotional control) on the relationship between powerful other people locus of control and mental health for 230 men treated for prostate cancer. Regression analyses indicated that physical health and masculine gender scripts moderated the association between powerful other people locus of control and mental health. Specifically, men with poor physical health evinced negative mental health when they endorsed masculine gender scripts and believed powerful other people (i.e., family, friends, or peers) were influential in controlling their cancer. By comparison, men reporting poor physical health, strong beliefs that powerful other people controlled their cancer, and less adherence to masculine scripts experienced positive mental health. The authors discuss future research directions and potential mental health implications for men treated for prostate cancer.

Emotions↗
PubMed1993

Hormone-sensitive periods for the control of motoneuron number and soma size in the dorsolateral nucleus of the rat spinal cord.

The dorsolateral nucleus (DLN) of the rat lumbosacral spinal cord is sexually dimorphic, with males having more and larger DLN motoneurons than do females. The development of this dimorphism depends on the presence of perinatal androgens. The present study sought to determine the periods in development during which the DLN is sensitive to the masculinizing effects of the androgen testosterone propionate (TP). The size and number of DLN motoneurons in neonatally ovariectomized female rats that were exposed to TP during either the late prenatal, early postnatal, or late postnatal period were compared to control males and females. Both late prenatal and early postnatal TP injections significantly increased DLN number by 48% and 50%, respectively, but the sensitive period for TP masculinization of soma size seems to be primarily postnatal, because prenatal TP injections had little or no effect on that measure. The sensitive period for TP masculinization of DLN neuron number is similar to that of the sexually dimorphic spinal nucleus of the bulbocavernosus (SNB). However, the sensitive period for TP masculinization of DLN soma size appears to begin later than for the SNB.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

The role of EGF in testosterone-induced reproductive tract differentiation.

EGF is known to modulate a variety of cellular functions including differentiation. The aim of this investigation was to determine the role of EGF in androgen-induced masculine differentiation. Accordingly, a series of experiments were designed and the results are summarized as described below. (1) We found that the specific deprivation of EGF using anti-EGF serum during the period of masculine differentiation in an organ culture bioassay system resulted in the disintegration of the Wolffian system in a dose-dependent manner. (2) Exogenous EGF supplemented in the above experiment corrected the anti-EGF effect, suggesting a specific role of EGF. (3) Anti-EGF serum was also found to disrupt the differentiation even in the presence of exogenous testosterone, suggesting an effect independent of testosterone synthesis. (4) EGF was found to have a direct masculinizing effect both in vivo and in vitro; however, it was not able to mimic all masculinizing effects of testosterone. The mesonephric segment of the Wolffian duct was retained by EGF in the female fetal tract under in vitro conditions, and under in vivo conditions EGF was able to increase anogenital distance and to induce epididymis in some female fetal mice. (5) We were able to detect an EGF-like material in the fetal genital tract during differentiation and found that the level of this material increased with advancement of differentiation. Thus, it appears from the above results that EGF plays a role in testosterone-induced reproductive tract differentiation.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Sexually dimorphic expression of a laryngeal-specific, androgen-regulated myosin heavy chain gene during Xenopus laevis development.

Masculinization of the larynx in Xenopus laevis frogs is essential for the performance of male courtship song. During postmetamorphic (PM) development, the initially female-like phenotype of laryngeal muscle (slow and fast twitch fibers) is converted to the masculine form (entirely fast twitch) under the influence of androgenic steroids. To explore the molecular basis of androgen-directed masculinization, we have isolated cDNA clones encoding portions of a new Xenopus myosin heavy chain (MHC) gene. We have detected expression of this gene only in laryngeal muscle and specifically in males. All adult male laryngeal muscle fibers express the laryngeal myosin (LM). Adult female laryngeal muscle expresses LM only in some fibers. Expression of LM during PM development was examined using Northern blots and in situ hybridization. Males express higher levels of LM than females throughout PM development and attain adult levels by PM3. In females, LM expression peaks transiently at PM2. Treatment of juvenile female frogs with the androgen dihydrotestosterone masculinizes LM expression. Thus, LM appears to be a male-specific, testosterone-regulated MHC isoform in Xenopus laevis. The LM gene will permit analysis of androgen-directed sexual differentiation in this highly sexually dimorphic tissue.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed1986

Effects of testosterone, estrogen, and dihydrotestosterone upon aggressive and sexual behavior of female rats.

Groups of female TMD rats were treated either with estradiol benzoate (EB), dihydrotestosterone propionate (DHTP), testosterone propionate (TP), EB + DHTP (EB/DHTP), or with oil. These groups of females were tested for social aggression and for masculine and feminine sexual behavior. In addition, patterns of masculine and feminine sexual responses during the aggressive encounters, were investigated. TP-treated females of the same strain were used as opponents in the tests for aggression. In accordance with previous results, EB did not activate aggression whereas TP treatment resulted in a significant increase in aggression in females. Aggressive responses were activated by adding DHTP to EB, up to levels equal to those activated by TP. Sexual responses were observed in the tests for aggression as well as in tests for sexual behavior. The results indicated that feminine and masculine sexual responses were affected significantly by hormonal treatment. Mounting behavior in the test for aggression was activated by TP and by EB/DHTP. Lordosis and proceptive responses were inhibited in these groups as compared to EB-treated females, both in tests for aggression and in tests for sexual behavior. The results are consistent with the idea that dihydrotestosterone inhibits feminine and activates masculine sexual activity. The results also indicate that EB and DHTP synergistically activate aggression.

Aggression↗