Infant obedience and maternal behavior: the origins of socialization reconsidered.
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Child Behavior↗
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Effects of stress and social support on mothers and premature and full-term infants.
This study examined the relationships of stress and social support to maternal attitudes and early mother-infant interactive behavior. 52 mother-premature infant pairs and 53 mother-full-term infant pairs were seen for structured home interviews at 1 month, and behavioral interactions at 4 months. Maternal life stress, social support, life satisfaction, and satisfaction with parenting were assessed at the 1-month home visit. Although no group differences were found, both stress and support significantly predicted maternal attitudes at 1 month and interactive behavior at 4 months when data were pooled. Mothers with greater stress were less positive in their attitudes and behavior, while mothers with greater support were significantly more positive. Intimate support proved to have the most general positive effects. Additionally, social support moderated the adverse effects of stress on mother's life satisfaction and on several behavioral variables. Maternal social support was further found to have several significant effects on infant interactive behavior. Results are discussed in terms of the ecological significance of social support to parenting and infants' early development.
Adolescent↗
The interpretation of infant pain: physiological and behavioral indicators used by NICU nurses.
The purpose of this descriptive study was to identify the indicators used by neonatal nurses to interpret the experience of pain in infants in a Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU). A sample of 72 NICU nurses completed a structured questionnaire to identify the physiological and behavioral indicators they used to interpret the experience of pain in the infants entrusted to their care. The 10 pain indicators used by more than 50% of the nurses, listed in decreasing order of frequency, were: fussiness, restlessness, grimacing, crying, increasing heart rate, increasing respirations, wiggling, rapid state changes, wrinkling of forehead, and clenching of fist. These findings are consistent with existing literature, are compatible with the stress cues identified in Als' Synactive Theory of Development, and lend support to the use of such measures for the assessment of infant pain.
Adult↗
The development of social behavior in the human infant.
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Animals↗
The physiological effect of infant mortality in reproductive behavior in the Sudan.
The present study examines the physiological effect of infant mortality on reproductive behavior for the Sudan using retrospective pregnancy history data for ever-married women, 15-49. The investigation has revealed that the death of an infant reduces the subsequent birth interval significantly, by about 6 months. This difference in the length of birth interval appears to be primarily a result of the interruption of lactation. When the birth intervals are examined by the fate of the two preceding children, the analysis shows insufficient evidence to indicate that infant mortality affects the length of birth intervals independently of the physiological effect.
Adolescent↗
Multiple, brief maternal separations in the squirrel monkey: changes in hormonal and behavioral responsiveness.
Infant squirrel monkeys had their mother removed from the home cage for 2 hr on 80 occasions between 12 and 31 weeks of age. The initial separation elicited high levels of infant vocalizations. By the second observation session (Separation 14), no vocal response to separation was observed. Plasma cortisol levels were markedly elevated at the beginning of the separation series, and there was a significant decline in this response by Separation 28, which was the next separation during which cortisol was monitored. However, there was no further decline, so that significant cortisol elevations were observed throughout the remainder of the separation series. At 35 weeks, the infants were separated one additional time and their responses were compared to those of a previously nonseparated control group. The control group vocalized more, but the two groups exhibited equivalent cortisol elevations. Observations of time spent riding on the mother during undisturbed conditions indicated that both groups developed independence from the mother at about the normal rate. Overall, the data show that brief separation from the mother can activate the infants' pituitary-adrenal system even when the infant has been separated 80 times previously, no longer appears behaviorally responsive to separation, is almost 9 months of age, and exhibits normal signs of independence from the mother.
Animals↗
Sensory-feedback analysis of infant control of the behavioral environment.
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Behavior↗
Nonnutritive sucking during heelstick procedures decreases behavioral distress in the newborn infant.
We investigated if nonnutritive sucking (NNS) during heelstick procedures alleviates behavioral distress in neonates. In our NICU, 26 neonates without severe complications (mean Minde score 0.8, range 0-3), undergoing heelstick procedures at least twice a day, in the first 2 weeks of life, were enrolled in the trial (mean gestational age 33.9 weeks, range 26-39 weeks, mean birth weight 1, 988.5 g, range 1,200-4,010 g, mean Apgar score at the first minute 6. 7, range 4-10, at the fifth minute 8.5, range 6-10). Two heelpricks were performed in each neonate with NNS randomly assigned. Behavioral states, transcutaneous oxygen tension (TcPO(2)), heart rate, and respiratory rate were monitored before, during and after the heelstick procedures. Heelstick procedures lasted for a mean of 109 s (range 50-230 s) with NNS, and a mean of 128.8 s (range 20-420 s) without NNS. Compared with baseline, heart rate and behavioral distress increased and respiratory rate decreased during heelstick and after heelstick. Oxygen tension did not change. Nonnutritive sucking had no effect on respiratory rate or transcutaneous oxygen tension, but reduced the time of crying and the heart rate increase during the procedure. In conclusion, NNS can be recommended to reduce distress in newborns undergoing invasive routine procedures. Further studies are needed to evaluate the effects of NNS on respiratory rate and blood gas levels.
Blood Specimen Collection↗
Behavioral arousal in newborn infants and its association with termination of apnea.
Arousal is an important protective mechanism that aids in the resolution of obstructive sleep apnea in adults and children, but its role in neonatal apnea has not been investigated. The primary aim of the present study was to determine the role of arousal in the termination of apnea in preterm infants. Videorecording was used to identify spontaneous behavioral arousal in a group of healthy full-term (n = 7) and preterm (n = 10) infants before and during polygraphic monitoring of cardiorespiratory variables and in a group of preterm infants with apnea (n = 10) during similar polygraphic monitoring. Spontaneous arousal rates (mean +/- SE) in full-term infants before and during polygraphic monitoring were 0.18 +/- 0.03 and 0.23 +/- 0.07 episodes/min, respectively. Corresponding values in nonapneic preterm infants were 0.24 +/- 0.03 and 0.24 +/- 0.02 episodes/min. In apneic preterm infants, mean spontaneous arousal rate during polygraphic recording was 0.26 +/- 0.02, but it was considerably higher during apneic sleep periods (0.59 +/- 0.17) than during nonapneic sleep periods (0.25 +/- 0.01). The frequency of occurrence of arousal was significantly higher (P less than 0.005) in long vs. short apnea, mixed vs. central apnea, and severe vs. mild apnea. Although a clear association between arousal and apneic resolution was observed in preterm infants, lack of arousal responses in a large number of apneic episodes suggests that behavioral arousal is not essential for the termination of apnea in these infants.
Airway Obstruction↗
Infants' perception of expressive behaviors: differentiation of multimodal information.
The literature on infants' perception of facial and vocal expressions, combined with data from studies on infant-directed speech, mother-infant interaction, and social referencing, supports the view that infants come to recognize the affective expressions of others through a perceptual differentiation process. Recognition of affective expressions changes from a reliance on multimodally presented information to the recognition of vocal expressions and then of facial expressions alone. Face or voice properties become differentiated and discriminated from the whole, standing for the entire emotional expression. Initially, infants detect information that potentially carries the meaning of emotional expressions; only later do infants discriminate and then recognize those expressions. The author reviews data supporting this view and draws parallels between the perceptions of affective expressions and of speech.
Emotions↗
Social separation in infant Cebus apella: patterns of behavioral and cortisol response.
34 infant tufted capuchins (Cebus apella) were separated from their social groups for a 2-hour period and videotaped in isolation at the ages of 6 months and 1 year. Baseline and 2-hour blood samples were measured for levels of serum cortisol. Compared to homecage baseline levels, passivity, locomotion and vocalizations increased during separation, while self-directed behavior and environmental exploration decreased. Both behavioral and cortisol responses to separation showed individual stability over the 6 month period, although both responses were somewhat attenuated at the later age. There was little correlation between cortisol and behavior during separations. Females vocalized more than did males during separations and showed greater cortisol increases at 6 months of age. The pattern of behavioral response seen in the 2 hours following separation appeared to be more passive than the typical 'protest' response described in many nonhuman primates, and may reflect either the physical circumstances of the separation or a characteristic of species with relaxed social bonds and considerable allomothering available to infants.
Animals↗
Neonatal behavior of Panamanian and Israeli infants: a cross-cultural study.
The behavior of third-generation Israeli neonates belonging to two ethnic groups--Ashkenazic infants (n = 20) and Sephardic infants (n = 20)--and the behavior of a group of full-term Panamanian infants (n = 30) were compared in order to examine cross-cultural and interethnic predispositions. The Israeli and Panamanian infants differed on 5 of a total of 27 neonatal behavioral assessment items: the difference in 3 of these items, representing the autonomic stability and motor clusters, exceeded 1 scale score. A comparison of the two Israeli ethnic subgroups with the Panamanian group (Duncan's multiple-range test) revealed significant differences between Ashkenazic and Sephardic infants on 2 auditory habituation items, whereas the Panamanian infants differed significantly from both Israeli subgroups on 10 of the items, representing the motor, range of state, and autonomic stability clusters. These results corroborate previous observations concerning cross-cultural neonatal behavioral differences and the possible role of environmental factors in the ongoing modeling process of human behavioral traits and personality.
Child Behavior↗
Operant theory and methodology in infant vocal conditioning.
The numerous mechanisms of behavior change in infant development are sometimes difficult to distinguish. Although it is agreed that elicitation and reinforcement both influence infant learning, the distinction between these two learning mechanisms was clarified in response to K. Bloom's (1984, Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 38, 93-102) commentary. The theoretical and methodological assumptions of an functional analysis of infant behavior were made explicit in the context of the C. L. Poulson study (1983, Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 36, 471-489). The rationale for the use of DRO schedules to control for elicitation effects of continuous reinforcement and the inadequacy of noncontingent schedules for this purpose were also discussed.
Conditioning, Operant↗
[Sonar System- digital sounds of instruments for behavior hearing tests with infants].
BACKGROUND: The use of musical instruments, in the clinical practice, for the behavioral assessment of hearing has a limited possibility to control loudness, and does not restrict the test situation to a determined frequency. A new method of testing infants is through the Sonar System. This program can be used for the behavioral hearing assessment of infants, with the possibility of choosing the frequency range and loudness in which the test will be carried out. The Sonar System is different from other behavioral assessment methods once it offers instruments with standardized sounds and is limited to certain frequency ranges; all controlled by the examiner. With this method, one can offer more precise assessments and researches with better methodological control, once the presented sound will not suffer interferences of the examiner. AIM: To use the Sonar System--digital band--to follow up the development of hearing in infants, born at term, from one to six months of age. METHOD: An average of 30 infants was monthly evaluated. For the assessment the following recordings of instruments were presented: clapper, ganzá, coco and drum. These recordings were respectively set at the frequencies of 3000, 1500, 700 and 500 Hz. All infants went through evoked otoacoustic emissions screening. RESULTS: Statistical analysis revealed significant responses in all of the tested frequencies. Results indicated statistically significant differences in all of the tested frequencies for the second trimester, but not for the first one. CONCLUSION: The use of the Sonar System (digital band) is recommended for the behavioral hearing assessment of this age group. Since this is a new technique to assess behavioral hearing, the use of the Sonar System should be expanded to other populations and in other social contexts in order to allow and facilitate the assessment, diagnosis and intervention of infants and small children.
Acoustic Stimulation↗
Effective and ineffective management behaviors of parents of infants and young children with asthma.
To define the specific objectives of a planned behavioral intervention directed toward parents of very young children with asthma, 574 detailed descriptions of ineffective and effective asthma management behaviors of parents of infants and young children (through 6 years of age) with asthma were collected via interviews with 117 physicians and other health professionals and 112 parents. Analysis of these data resulted in the identification of 130 ineffective and effective asthma management behaviors of parents that could be grouped in five major areas of responsibility: symptom intervention; symptom prevention; use of medical and educational resources; communication among caregivers; and child development and family relationships. This report presents the methodology of the study, describes the identified behaviors, and discusses implications of the results for the development of a behavioral intervention to improve asthma management by parents.
Adaptation, Psychological↗
Two moral cases: psychosurgery and behavior control; grossly malformed infants.
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Aggression↗
Nipple feeding preterm infants: an individualized, developmentally supportive approach.
Many NICU infants present with complex issues that affect the transition to full nipple feeding. At a time when length of stay is critical, this transition can be facilitated by an individualized, developmentally supportive approach. The approach described in this article involves (1) observing the infant for behavioral cues of stability or stress during nippling, as reflected in change in color, state of alertness, breathing, and swallowing; (2) individualizing intervention to help the infant regain and maintain coordination; and (3) facilitating parents' competence and confidence in feeding their infant. Contingent interventions are used to promote physiologic homeostasis and self-regulation.
Adult↗
Atypical maternal behavior, maternal representations, and infant disorganized attachment.
The data for 197 mother-infant pairs from two longitudinal studies were analyzed to assess relations between maternal attachment representations; atypical maternal behavior, coded with a new tool. Atypical Maternal Behavior Instrument for Assessment and Classification (AMBIANCE), and infant attachment. Both maternal and infant attachment were systematically related to atypical maternal behavior: mothers who were Unresolved on the Adult Attachment Interview and those whose infants were disorganized in the Strange Situation Procedure engaged in more atypical behaviors than those who were not Unresolved and whose infants showed organized patterns of attachment, respectively. Regression analyses indicated that when tested as a mediator, atypical maternal behavior as measured on the AMBIANCE did not reduce the association between maternal Unresolved status and infant disorganized attachment. This may, in part, reflect the fact that our low-risk sample did not include enough cases in the risk categories. These data provide preliminary empirical validation for the AMBIANCE and strengthen the evidence for links between atypical maternal behavior and disorganized attachment but indicate that in addition to maternal attachment representations, other factors must contribute to atypical maternal behavior.
Adolescent↗