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PubMed2004

Plant chemical defense against herbivores and pathogens: generalized defense or trade-offs?

Plants are often attacked by multiple enemies, including pathogens and herbivores. While many plant secondary metabolites show specific effects toward either pathogens or herbivores, some can affect the performance of both these groups of natural enemies and are considered to be "generalized defense compounds". We tested whether aucubin and catalpol, two iridoid glycosides present in ribwort plantain (Plantago lanceolata), confer in vivo resistance to both the generalist insect herbivore Spodoptera exigua and the biotrophic fungal pathogen Diaporthe adunca using plants from P. lanceolata lines that had been selected for high- and low-leaf iridoid glycoside concentrations for four generations. The lines differed approximately three-fold in the levels of these compounds. Plants from the high-selection line showed enhanced resistance to both S. exigua and D. adunca, as evidenced by a smaller lesion size and a lower fungal growth rate and spore production, and a lower larval growth rate and herbivory under both choice and no-choice conditions. Gravimetric analysis revealed that the iridoid glycosides acted as feeding deterrents to S. exigua, thereby reducing its food intake rate, rather than having post-ingestive toxic effects as predicted from in vitro effects of hydrolysis products. We suggest that the bitter taste of iridoid glycosides deters feeding by S. exigua, whereas the hydrolysis products formed after tissue damage following fungal infection mediate pathogen resistance. We conclude that iridoid glycosides in P. lanceolata can serve as broad-spectrum defenses and that selection for pathogen resistance could potentially result in increased resistance to generalist insect herbivores and vice versa, resulting in diffuse rather than pairwise coevolution.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed2006

Comparison of the proteome profiles of Entamoeba histolytica and its close but non-pathogenic relative Entamoeba dispar.

The microaerophilic protist Entamoeba histolytica is a source of considerable morbidity and mortality in many countries of the world by acting as a causative agent of amoebic dysentery and liver abscess. Its close relative, Entamoeba dispar, also colonises the human colon but is non-pathogenic. In the present study, we wanted to assess if the close relatedness of these two organisms could be used to identify virulence factors in E. histolytica through a comparison of the protein expression profiles of the pathogenic and the non-pathogenic species. We applied two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis in order to identify proteins which are specifically expressed in E. histolytica and which therefore could constitute candidate proteins potentially involved in E. histolytica pathogenicity. The evaluation of overall protein expression profiles derived from whole cell extracts, however, revealed that, in spite of the close relatedness at the genetic level, the disparity of the proteomic profiles of these two Entamoeba species is far too great in order to pinpoint proteins whose expression might render E. histolytica pathogenic. Taken together, our study performed at the proteomic level clearly supports the notion of E. histolytica and E. dispar as two distinct species.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and a non-pathogenic Fusarium oxysporum on Meloidogyne incognita infestation of tomato.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi and non-pathogenic strains of soil-borne pathogens have been shown to control plant parasitic nematodes. As AM fungi and non-pathogenic fungi improve plant health by different mechanisms, combination of two such partners with complementary mechanisms might increase overall control efficacy and, therefore, provide an environmentally safe alternative to nematicide application. Experiments were conducted to study possible interactions between the AM fungus Glomus coronatum and the non-pathogenic Fusarium oxysporum strain Fo162 in the control of Meloidogyne incognita on tomato. Pre-inoculation of tomato plants with G. coronatum or Fo162 stimulated plant growth and reduced M. incognita infestation. Combined application of the AM fungus and Fo162 enhanced mycorrhization of tomato roots but did not increase overall nematode control or plant growth. A higher number of nematodes per gall was found for mycorrhizal than non-mycorrhizal plants. In synergisms between biocontrol agents, differences in their antagonistic mechanisms seem to be less important than their effects on different growth stages of the pathogen.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Changes in the haemagglutinin and the neuraminidase genes prior to the emergence of highly pathogenic H7N1 avian influenza viruses in Italy.

Outbreaks of avian influenza due to an H7N1 virus of low pathogenicity occurred in domestic poultry in northern Italy from March 1999 until December 1999 when a highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus emerged. Nucleotide sequences were determined for the HA1 and the stalk region of the neuraminidase (NA) for viruses from the outbreaks. The HPAI viruses have an unusual multibasic haemagglutinin (HA) cleavage site motif, PEIPKGSRVRRGLF. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the HPAI viruses arose from low pathogenicity viruses and that they are most closely related to a wild bird isolate, A/teal/Taiwan/98. Additional glycosylation sites were present at amino acid position 149 of the HA for two separate lineages, and at position 123 for all HPAI and some low pathogenicity viruses. Other viruses had no additional glycosylation sites. All viruses examined from the Italian outbreaks had a 22 amino acid deletion in the NA stalk that is not present in the N1 genes of the wild bird viruses examined. We conclude that the Italian HPAI viruses arose from low pathogenicity strains, and that a deletion in the NA stalk followed by the acquisition of additional glycosylation near the receptor binding site of HA1 may be an adaptation of H7 viruses to a new host species i.e. domestic poultry.

Amino Acid Motifs↗
PubMed2005

Respiratory pathogens in dental plaque of hospitalized patients with chronic lung diseases.

Bacterial cultivation studies have shown that dental plaque is a reservoir for respiratory pathogens in intensive care unit patients and in elderly who are debilitated, hospitalized or in a nursing home, placing them at risk of bacterial pneumonia. No information is available, however, concerning dental plaque as a reservoir of putative respiratory pathogens in hospitalized patients with chronic lung diseases. Supragingival plaque colonization of 34 hospitalized chronic lung-diseased Romanian citizens, excluding those with tuberculosis and less than 20 teeth, was therefore assessed by checkerboard DNA-DNA hybridization using a selected panel of whole genomic DNA probes produced from eight respiratory pathogens and eight oral pathogens. Thirty-one lung-healthy dental outpatients served as reference population. Respiratory pathogens were detected in plaque from 29 of the 34 (85.3%) hospitalized patients and 12 of the 31 (38.7%) reference population subjects. Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumannii, and Enterobacter cloacae occurred significantly (p<0.05) more frequent among the hospitalized patients. Hospitalized chronic lung-diseased patients harbored in their supragingival plaque samples bacteria known to cause nosocomial pneumonia significantly (p<0.001) more frequent than lung-healthy dental outpatients. Our results indicate that dental plaque in patients with chronic lung diseases often serves as a reservoir of bacteria known to cause nosocomial pneumonia in susceptible individuals.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

From molecular mimicry to cross-reactivity or pathogen expansion? A hypothesis.

Very recently, several studies have convincingly demonstrated the role of infection in the development of the antiphospholipid syndrome. Cross antibody-mediated reactivity due to molecular mimicry between endothelial glycoproteins and microbial products was considered as an important pathogenic mechanism. However, another consequence of the molecular mimicry may be proposed. Similar tissues have less likelihood of being rejected and have a greater chance of being accepted by the host. According to this principle, pathogens with common-to-host antigens may attach readily and not be eliminated. A direct expansion of such pathogens may involve new territories. The targets of the approach 1, "from molecular mimicry to cross-reactivity," are T-B cells system inhibition-modulation. The targets of approach 2, "from molecular mimicry to pathogen expansion," are pathogens, enforcement of barriers, elimination techniques, and preventive strategy.

Antiphospholipid Syndrome↗
PubMed2003

Enteric pathogens and soil: a short review.

It is known that soil is a recipient of solid wastes able to contain enteric pathogens in high concentrations. Although the role of soil as a reservoir of certain bacterial pathogens is not in question, recent findings show that soil may have a larger role in the transmission of enteric diseases than previously thought. Many of the diseases caused by agents from soil have been well characterized, although enteric diseases and their link to soil have not been so well studied. Gastrointestinal infections are the most common diseases caused by enteric bacteria. Some examples are salmonellosis ( Salmonella sp.), cholera ( Vibrio cholerae), dysentery ( Shigella sp.) and other infections caused by Campylobacter jejuni, Yersinia sp. and Escherichia coli O157:H7 and many other strains. Viruses are the most hazardous and have some of the lowest infectious doses of any of the enteric pathogens. Hepatitis A, hepatitis E, enteric adenoviruses, poliovirus types 1 and 2, multiple strains of echoviruses and coxsackievirus are enteric viruses associated with human wastewater. Among the most commonly detected protozoa in sewage are Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia intestinalis and Cryptosporidium parvum. This article reviews the existing literature of more than two decades on waste disposal practices that favor the entry of enteric pathogens to soil and the possible consequent role of the soil as a vector and reservoir of enteric pathogens.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Innovative tools for detection of plant pathogenic viruses and bacteria.

Detection of harmful viruses and bacteria in plant material, vectors or natural reservoirs is essential to ensure safe and sustainable agriculture. The techniques available have evolved significantly in the last few years to achieve rapid and reliable detection of pathogens, extraction of the target from the sample being important for optimising detection. For viruses, sample preparation has been simplified by imprinting or squashing plant material or insect vectors onto membranes. To improve the sensitivity of techniques for bacterial detection, a prior enrichment step in liquid or solid medium is advised. Serological and molecular techniques are currently the most appropriate when high numbers of samples need to be analysed. Specific monoclonal and/or recombinant antibodies are available for many plant pathogens and have contributed to the specificity of serological detection. Molecular detection can be optimised through the automatic purification of nucleic acids from pathogens by columns or robotics. New variants of PCR, such as simple or multiplex nested PCR in a single closed tube, co-operative-PCR and real-time monitoring of amplicons or quantitative PCR, allow high sensitivity in the detection of one or several pathogens in a single assay. The latest development in the analysis of nucleic acids is micro-array technology, but it requires generic DNA/RNA extraction and pre-amplification methods to increase detection sensitivity. The advances in research that will result from the sequencing of many plant pathogen genomes, especially now in the era of proteomics, represent a new source of information for the future development of sensitive and specific detection techniques for these microorganisms.

Bacteria↗
PubMed2002

Production of transgenic medaka with increased resistance to bacterial pathogens.

Cecropins, first identified in silk moth (Hyalophora cecropia), are a group of antimicrobial peptides with bactericidal activity against a broad spectrum of bacteria. In this study we investigated whether (1) this group of antimicrobial peptides could exhibit bactericidal activity toward known fish bacterial pathogens and (2) expression of cecropin transgenes in transgenic medaka (Oryzias latipas) could result in increasing resistance of the transgenic fish to infection by fish bacterial pathogens. Cecropin gene construct containing silk moth preprocecropin B, procecropin B and cecropin B, and porcine cecropin P1 driven by a cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter were transfected into chinook salmon embryonic cells (CHSE-214) by lipofection, and the resulting permanent transformants were collected. In an "inhibition zone" assay medium isolated from each transformant exhibited strong bactericidal activity toward known fish bacterial pathogens such as Pseudomonas fluorescens, Aeromonas hydrophila, and Vibrio anguillarum. The same cecropin transgene constructs were introduced into newly fertilized medaka eggs by electroporation to produce transgenic fish. About 40% to 60% of the embryos survived from electroporation, and about 5% to 11% of the surviving fish were shown to contain cecropin transgenes by polymerase chain reaction analysis of genomic DNA samples isolated from presumptive transgenic fish. These P1 transgenic fish were used as founder stocks, and following generations of successive breeding, a total of 20 F2 families of transgenic fish were established. Expression of cecropin transgenes was detected in the F2 transgenics by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction analysis. Southern blot analysis of genomic DNA isolated from different F2 fish showed that cecropin transgenes were integrated into the genomes of F2 transgenic fish. To determine whether transgenic fish carrying cecropin transgenes could exhibit resistance to infection by known fish bacterial pathogens, F2 transgenic fish from different families and control fish were challenged with P. fluorescens and V. anguillarum at a 60% lethal dose. Challenge studies showed that while about 40% of the control fish were killed by both pathogens, only up to 10% of the F2 transgenic fish were killed by P. fluorescens and about 10% to 30% by V. anguillarum. These results clearly showed that the transgenic medaka carrying cecropin transgenes had acquired elevated resistance to bacterial infection.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2006

Prospective surveillance for atypical pathogens in children with community-acquired pneumonia in Japan.

A total of 141 children with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) were studied prospectively to determine the causative microorganisms. Microbial investigations included examination of postnasal swabs, cultures, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and serology. The atypical pathogens occurring most frequently were Mycoplasma pneumoniae (58 patients [41.1%]), Chlamydia pneumoniae (4 patients [2.8%]), and concurrent occurrence of both pathogens (1 patient [0.7%]). Patients aged under 4 years showed a relatively lower rate of atypical bacterial etiology compared with those aged 4 years or older. Major bacterial pathogens were detected in 89 patients (atypical pathogens were detected in 28 patients simultaneously), including Streptococcus pneumoniae in 34 patients, Haemophilus influenzae in 60, Moraxella catarrhalis in 48, and multiple pathogens in 42. In patients suspected of having atypical pneumonia, macrolides are recommended.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Eradication of pathogenic bacteria and restoration of normal pouch flora: comparison of metronidazole and ciprofloxacin in the treatment of pouchitis.

PURPOSE: Pouchitis is the major long-term complication after ileal pouch-anal anastomosis for ulcerative colitis. Metronidazole and ciprofloxacin are commonly used for treatment; however, nothing is known about the effects on the pouch flora during and after pouchitis episodes. This study was designed to evaluate the effect of both antibiotics on eradication of pathogens and the restoration of normal pouch flora. METHODS: The fecal flora obtained from 13 patients with ulcerative colitis was examined at the beginning of a pouchitis episode before treatment, during treatment with metronidazole or ciprofloxacin, and during pouchitis-free periods. Some patients experienced more than one pouchitis episode. Therefore, a total of 104 samples was obtained. Each sample was cultured under aerobic and anaerobic conditions and the isolated bacteria were identified. Furthermore, the clinical response to both antibiotics was compared using the Pouchitis Disease Activity Index score. RESULTS: During pouchitis-free periods, the patients had a flora characterized by high numbers of anaerobes and no or low numbers of pathogens. This flora resembles normal colon flora. During pouchitis episodes, we found a significant decrease of anaerobes ( P = 0.01), a significant increase of aerobic bacteria ( P = 0.01), and significantly more numbers of pathogens, such as Clostridium perfringens (in 95 percent of the samples; P < 0.01) and hemolytic strains of Escherichia coli (in 57 percent of the samples; P = 0.05). Treatment with metronidazole resulted in a complete eradication of the anaerobic flora, including C. perfringens. However, no changes in the numbers of E. coli were found. In contrast, when the patient was treated with ciprofloxacin, not only C. perfringens, but also all coliforms including hemolytic strains of E. coli disappeared. The larger part of the anaerobic flora was left undisturbed during the administration of ciprofloxacin. Patients treated with ciprofloxacin experienced significant larger reductions in Pouchitis Disease Activity Index score compared with patients treated with metronidazole ( P = 0.04). CONCLUSIONS: This study strongly suggests a role of pathogenic bacteria ( C. perfringens and/or hemolytic strains of E. coli) in pouchitis. From a microbiologic and a clinical point of view, ciprofloxacin is preferable to metronidazole, because treatment with ciprofloxacin eradicates both pathogens and results in an optimal restoration of normal pouch flora.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Phytohormones mediate volatile emissions during the interaction of compatible and incompatible pathogens: the role of ethylene in Pseudomonas syringae infected tobacco.

Interactions between the phytohormones ethylene, salicylic acid (SA), and jasmonic acid (JA) are thought to regulate the specificity of induced plant defenses against microbial pathogens and herbivores. However, the nature of these interactions leading to induced plant volatile emissions during pathogen infection is unclear. We previously demonstrated that a complex volatile blend including (E)-beta-ocimene, methyl salicylate (MeSA), and numerous sesquiterpenes was released by tobacco plants, Nicotiana tabacum K326, infected with an avirulent/incompatible strain of Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato (Pst DC3000). In contrast, a volatile blend, mainly consisting of MeSA and two unidentified sesquiterpenes, was released by plants infected with P. syringae pv. tabaci (Pstb) in a virulent/compatible interaction. In this study, we examined the interaction of multiple pathogen stresses, phytohormone signaling, and induced volatile emissions in tobacco. Combined pathogen infection involved the inoculation of one leaf with Pst DC 3000 and of a second leaf, from the same plant, with Pstb. Combined infection reduced emissions of ocimene and MeSA compared to plants infected with Pst DC 3000 alone, but with no significant changes in total sesquiterpene emissions. In the compatible interaction, Pstb elicited a large ethylene burst with a peak emission occurring 3 days after inoculation. In contrast, the incompatible interaction involving Pst DC3000 displayed no such ethylene induction. Pstb-induced ethylene production was not significantly altered by Pst DC3000 in the combined infection. We postulated that Pstb-induced ethylene production may play a regulatory role in altering the typical volatile emission in tobacco in response to Pst DC3000 infection. To clarify the role of ethylene, we dynamically applied ethylene to the headspace of tobacco plants following infection with Pst DC3000. Consistent with Pstb-induced ethylene, exogenous ethylene reduced both ocimene and MeSA emissions, and selectively altered the ratios and amounts of induced sesquiterpene emissions. Our findings suggest that ethylene can regulate the magnitude and blend of induced volatile emissions during pathogen infection.

Cyclopentanes↗
PubMed2004

Ultrastructural characterisation of the host-pathogen interface in white blister-infected Arabidopsis leaves.

In this study transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was used to examine details of the host-pathogen interface in Arabidopsis thaliana cotyledons infected by Albugo candida, causal agent of white blister. After successful entry through stomatal pores, the pathogen developed a substomatal vesicle and subsequently produced intercellular hyphae. TEM observations revealed that coenocytic intercellular hyphae ramified and spread intercellularly throughout the host tissue forming several haustoria in host mesophyll cells. Intracellular haustoria were spherical and 4.5 microm in diameter. Each haustorium was connected to intercellular hyphae by a narrow, slender haustorium neck. The cytoplasm of the haustorium included the organelles characteristic of the pathogen. No obvious response was observed in host cells following formation of haustoria. Most of the mesophyll cells contained normal haustoria and the host cytoplasm displayed a high degree of structural integrity. Absence of host cell wall alteration and cell death in penetrated host cells suggest that the pathogen exerts considerable control over basic cellular processes and in this respect, response to this biotrophic Oomycete differs considerably from responses to other pathogens such as necrotrophs. Modification of the host plasma membrane (PM) along the cell wall and around the haustoria, was detected by applying the periodic acid-chromic acid-phosphotungstic acid (PACP) staining technique. After staining with PACP, the host PM was found to be intensely electron dense where it was adjacent to the host cell wall and the distal region of the haustorial neck. By contrast, the extrahaustorial membrane, where the host PM surrounded the haustorium, was consistently very lightly stained.

Arabidopsis↗
PubMed2006

Transcriptional activator TSRF1 reversely regulates pathogen resistance and osmotic stress tolerance in tobacco.

Increasing evidences show that ethylene-responsive factor (ERF) proteins regulate plant stress response and the interaction of different stress responsive pathways through interacting with different cis-acting elements, even other transcription factors. Here, we report a transcriptional activator TSRF1, which was previously demonstrated to regulate plant resistance to Ralstonia solanacearum, reversely regulates pathogen resistance and osmotic stress tolerance in tobacco. Sequence analysis revealed that TSRF1 contains a putative transcriptional activation domain. Using yeast two hybrid system we evidenced that this activation domain is essential for activating the expression of reporter gene. To confirm the broad-spectrum pathogen resistance of TSRF1 we observed that over-expressing TSRF1 enhances the resistance to Pseudomonas syringae and Botrytis cinerea in both tobacco and tomato plants, but RNA interference of TSRF1 in tomato plants decreases the resistance to these pathogens, unraveling the positive regulation of TSRF1 in plant pathogen infections. The expression of TSRF1 in response to NaCl and mannitol suggests the possible functions of TSRF1 in osmotic stress responses, but the physiological tests indicate that expressing TSRF1 in tobaccos decreases tolerance to NaCl or mannitol during germination and seedling root development, and this result was consistent with PEG6000 treatment with mature tobacco seedlings, indicating the negative modulation of TSRF1 in osmotic stress response. Therefore, our research reveals that transcriptional activator TSRF1 reversely regulates plant pathogen resistance and osmotic stress response.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2004

The Role of the Intestinal Tract As a Source for Transmission of Nosocomial Pathogens.

The intestinal tract provides an important source for transmission of many nosocomial pathogens, including Enterococcus species, Clostridium difficile, Candida species, Enterobacteriaceae, and other gram-negative bacilli. Recent data suggest that the intestinal tracts of hospitalized patients may also be an important reservoir of Staphylococcus aureus. Although the clinical manifestations of these pathogens are diverse, a common pathogenesis is involved in their colonization of and dissemination from the intestinal tract. Of particular importance is the role that antibiotic selective pressure plays in promotion of colonization by antibiotic-resistant pathogens. Strategies to limit the spread of these pathogens must include efforts to improve adherence to standard infection control practices and promotion of good antimicrobial stewardship. New strategies that include application of novel technologies to the problem of pathogen transmission are needed, and additional research is needed to clarify the potential utility of selective decontamination of the digestive tract.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1991

Current trends in bacterial respiratory pathogens.

The relationship of virulence and antimicrobial susceptibility with morbidity due to bacterial respiratory pathogens is complex and evolving. Ultimately, decreasing the incidence of pneumonia due to bacterial pathogens will be dependent on successful preparation and distribution of effective vaccines. Until effective vaccines are widely available, control of a majority of respiratory infections will depend on promotion of rational therapeutic strategies. Though limited to a few specific serotypes and strains, changes in virulence of bacterial respiratory pathogens have been noted. Co-infections due to multiple respiratory pathogens may increase morbidity; however, the epidemiology of co-infections is not clear. Relationships between respiratory viruses and bacteria may exist that increase virulence of both agents, but information regarding these relationships awaits further investigation. Resistance of respiratory pathogens to the more commonly used antimicrobials, such as penicillin, erythromycin, chloramphenicol, and cotrimoxazole, is being documented globally with increasing frequency. The evolution of antimicrobic resistance, especially among strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae, the most common and deadly agent of lower respiratory tract infections, provides impetus to develop and promote effective pneumococcal vaccines and to search for new and effective antimicrobials.

Bacterial Infections↗
PubMed1988

Prevalence of enteric pathogens in homosexual men with and without acquired immunodeficiency syndrome.

We studied 388 homosexual or bisexual men from the Baltimore-Washington area to define the spectrum of enteric pathogen carriage in a population at high risk for "gay bowel syndrome" in association with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Seventy-seven patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, 68 gay men with symptoms of acute diarrhea or proctitis, and 243 gay men without gastrointestinal symptoms and participating in a natural history study of human immunodeficiency virus infection were selected for study. Approximately 12% of the asymptomatic men harbored at least one enteric pathogen; the most frequently recovered were Chlamydia trachomatis, herpes simplex virus, and Giardia lamblia. Men carrying a pathogen were more likely to be human immunodeficiency virus seropositive (48%) than men without a pathogen (25%) (p = 0.018), more likely to have fewer T helper cells (p = 0.015), and more likely to have a mucopurulent exudate (p = 0.014). We recovered an agent of enteric disease from 68% of gay men presenting with diarrhea or proctitis. Campylobacter species, herpes simplex virus, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, C. trachomatis, G. lamblia, and Shigella species were identified most frequently. The most common pathogen associated with diarrhea in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome was Cryptosporidium (16% of 49 cases). Other agents identified were Clostridium difficile, Vibrio parahemolyticus, Campylobacter species, G. lamblia, Isospora, and cytomegalovirus. Approximately half of the identifiable etiologic agents of diarrhea in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome patients were treatable with antibiotics, but these agents required special culture procedures for detection.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗
PubMed1985

Recovery of potential pathogens from feeding bottle contents and teats in Zaria, Nigeria.

Pathogens were recovered from the contents of 41 out of 50 feeding bottles and from 32 teats in a survey in Zaria, Nigeria. 39 bottle contents and 30 teats yielded enteric pathogens. Traditional weaning gruels were more contaminated than were commercial feeds. Koko bottles yielded more pathogens than Akamu bottles. Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli was the most common pathogen recovered, seen more in bottle contents than teats. Bottle hygiene was poor and cleaning methods and feeding practices were not satisfactory. Lack of facilities in the home prevented better hygiene. Prolonged pre-cooking preparation, storage of gruels in bulk for the whole day in thermos flasks or enamel bowls, and inadequate hygiene in the preparation of commercial feeds resulted in the large recovery of pathogens. Alternate feeding methods were suggested and the need for the practice of good hygiene by all who are involved in the preparation of infant feeds was emphasized.

Animals↗