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PubMed1997

Cloning of the murine platelet glycoprotein Ibalpha gene highlighting species-specific platelet adhesion.

We report the sequence of a 2,779 base pari genomic DNA fragment containing the mouse glycoprotein (GP) Ibalpha gene. Similar to its human counterpart, the mouse GP Ibalpha gene contains a single exon encoding a 734-residue GP Ibalpha precursor polypeptide. Comparative analysis between human and mouse polypeptides reveals a 75% sequence similarity between the amino-terminal domain of each polypeptide. However, there is sequence divergence within a short linear sequence of the amino-terminal domain previously implicated in human GP Ibalpha as critical for the binding of human von Willebrand factor (vWF). Mouse and human primary sequences diverge through their extracytoplasmic macroglycopeptide domains reducing the overall sequence similarity to 70%. The transmembrane and cytoplasmic sequences are highly conserved in both species with 59 identical residues among the 62 comprising the carboxyl-terminus of each polypeptide. The species-specific interaction between human GP Ibalpha and vWF was demonstrated in a model flow system monitoring the ability of surface-bound human vWF to capture from flowing blood normal mouse platelets or transgenic mouse platelets expressing the human GP Ibalpha subunit. The results further define the structural elements necessary for the interaction of human vWF and platelets.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2001

Organ and species specificity in the stimulation of transitional epithelial cell growth by fibroblasts.

OBJECTIVES: Culture of transitional epithelium for urinary tract reconstruction has been problematic due, in part, to the dependence of urothelial cells on a basal layer of bladder fibroblasts for growth. In vitro studies on the effect of bladder, ureter, and intestinal fibroblast cocultures and conditioned media upon urothelial cell growth were conducted to better characterize the dependence of urothelial cells of fibroblasts. METHODS: Primary cultures of human and porcine bladder, ureter, and intestinal fibroblasts and bladder and ureter urothelial cells were established. The urothelial cells were incubated with fibroblasts in a coculture system and growth compared to that of individual fibroblast and urothelial cultures. Urothelium-specific medium was exposed to the fibroblast cultures for 6, 12, and 24 h. Urothelial cell growth in each of the fibroblast-conditioned media was evaluated. RESULTS: Coculture of human urothelial cells with human bladder and ureter fibroblasts yielded increased cell growth when compared to the cells in individual culture. This improvement was greatest for the bladder fibroblasts in coculture with bladder epithelial cells. The media exposed to bladder and ureter fibroblasts for 24 h significantly increased bladder and ureter urothelial growth compared to fresh medium. Coculture with intestinal fibroblasts and exposure to intestinal fibroblast conditioned media did not significantly stimulate urothelial cell growth. Similarly, coculture and conditioned media studies of porcine urothelial cells with porcine bladder and ureter fibroblasts (but not intestinal fibroblasts) yielded increased cell growth when compared to the cells in individual culture, particularly with bladder fibroblasts. However, human urothelial cells were not stimulated by porcine bladder and ureter fibroblast conditioned media, nor were porcine urothelial cells stimulated by human bladder and ureter fibroblast conditioned media. CONCLUSIONS: The ability of urinary fibroblasts to stimulate urothelial cell proliferation resides in an unidentified soluble factor secreted into the medium, independent of the presence of the fibroblasts. This factor is relatively organ and species-specific.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Localization of glucose transporter GLUT 3 in brain: comparison of rodent and dog using species-specific carboxyl-terminal antisera.

The carboxyl-terminal amino acid sequences of the canine and gerbil glucose transporter GLUT3 were determined and compared to the published rat sequence. Eleven of 16 amino acids comprising the carboxyl terminus of GLUT3 were found to be identical in rat and dog. However, the canine sequence "ATV" substitutes for the rat sequence "PGNA" at the end of the molecule. The gerbil sequence has 12 of 16 amino acids identical to the rat, including the PGNA terminus. Based on these sequences, four peptides were synthesized, and two polyclonal antisera (one to the canine sequence and one to the rat sequence) were raised to examine the distribution of GLUT3 in canine and rodent brain. Immunoblots of brain membrane preparations showed that both antisera identified peptide-inhibitable protein bands of molecular weight 45,000-50,000. Immunocytochemical studies demonstrated that binding sites for these antisera were abundantly distributed in neuropil in all brain regions. Areas rich in synapses and areas surrounding microvessels exhibited especially high reactivity. GLUT3 reactivity was similarly distributed in canine and rodent brain, except at the blood-brain barrier. GLUT3 was not detected in the blood-brain barrier in gerbil and rat but was present in many canine cerebral endothelial cells, particularly in cerebellum and brain stem. The carboxyl-terminal antisera employed in this study exhibited high degrees of species specificity, indicating that the three or four terminal amino acids of the immunizing peptides (ATV and PGNA) are important epitopes for binding the polyclonal antibodies. These antisera exhibited only minimal binding to brain tissue of non-target species, yet yielded similar staining patterns in neuropil of rodent and canine brain. This finding provides strong evidence that the observed staining patterns accurately reflect the distribution of GLUT3 in brain. In addition, the presence of vascular GLUT3 in dog brain suggests that the canine blood-brain barrier may be preferable to that of the rat as a model for studies of glucose transport relevant to human brain.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed1996

Occurrence of silent RNA editing in chloroplasts: its species specificity and the influence of environmental and developmental conditions.

We have identified three new C-to-U RNA editing sites, one in atpF and two in atpA transcripts from tobacco chloroplasts. Two of them lead to amino acid substitutions to restore the conserved amino acid found in the corresponding genes of other plants. However, one editing site in the atpA transcript was found to take place partially at the third base of a serine codon (CUC_ to CUU_), thus not leading to an amino acid substitution. This is the first report of silent editing in chloroplasts. The extent of silent editing depends on plastid stage and light conditions, while editing as another site (found 4 nt upstream from the silent editing site) takes place constitutively even in non-photosynthetic cultured cells and bleached white seedlings grown in the presence of spectinomycin and streptomycin. In pea and spinach, despite a conservation in sequence, no editing at the site corresponding to the silent site in tobacco was found. This observation suggests that the silent editing detected in this study is species-specific.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed1997

Species-specificity of pyrimethamine in the rodent bone marrow micronucleus test.

An antiprotozoal agent pyrimethamine is a potent clastogen that induces structural chromosome aberrations and micronuclei in cultured Chinese hamster (CHL) cells in vitro. Our previous study on the compound, however, demonstrated no significant induction of micronuclei in the mouse bone marrow micronucleus test, even with dosings on 4 consecutive days. In the present study, we investigated the clastogenicity of pyrimethamine in the rat bone marrow micronucleus test. An obvious dose-dependent increase in the frequency of micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes (MNPCEs) was observed when the compound was given 3 times by oral gavage at 20-120 mg/kg/day. The MNPCE frequency at the highest dose was 80 times that of the control group. Single dose of pyrimethamine at 80 and 160 mg/kg also significantly induced MNPCEs. Thus, pyrimethamine showed species-specific effects in rodent bone marrow micronucleus assays. Our finding implies that micronucleus tests using not only mouse, but also rat, may be necessary for the evaluation of clastogens detected in in vitro cytogenetic studies.

Administration, Oral↗
PubMed1989

Monoclonal antibody assessment of tissue- and species-specific myosin light chain kinase isozymes.

Monoclonal antibodies raised against chicken gizzard smooth muscle myosin light chain kinase were used for immunological and structural studies of this enzyme. Epitope mapping of trypsin-digested chicken gizzard enzyme showed that MM-1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 bind to 65 kDa (trypsin-digested) and 60 kDa (chymotrypsin-digested) fragments which contain the catalytic domain of the kinase. Kinetic analysis demonstrated that MM-7 inhibited kinase activity competitively with respect to ATP and noncompetitively with respect to myosin light chain, thereby indicating that MM-7 binds at or near the ATP binding site of the enzyme. Immunoblot analysis revealed that all these antibodies (MM-1 to 12) reacted with the enzyme (130 kDa) from intestinal and vascular smooth muscles, whereas 5 (MM-1, 3, 4, 6, and 9) or 3 (MM-1, 3, and 4) of 12 antibodies did not cross-react with chicken cardiac muscle or with blood platelet myosin light chain kinase (130 kDa), respectively. None of these antibodies showed cross-reactivity against skeletal muscle myosin light chain kinase. As for mammalian species, MM-11 and 12 reacted with myosin light chain kinase of vascular smooth muscle (140 kDa) and MM-11 cross-reacted with the enzyme (140 kDa) from cardiac muscle of rat and rabbit. These data suggest the existence of at least 4 subspecies of myosin light chain kinase in chicken tissues and the heterogeneity of tissue- and species-specific isozyme forms.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

[Application of the PCR-RFLP technique for the species-specific identification of nematodes involved in human anisakiasis].

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: We intended to develop a molecular test allowing a species-specific identification of the anisakid human parasite independently of its evolutive stage. MATERIAL AND METHOD: Anisakid larvae were obtained from fish destined to human consumption. In the PCR-RFLP test, the DNA corresponding to the ITS-1, 5.8S rRNA gene, ITS-2 and approximately 70 of the 28S rRNA gene region was amplified and a positive control was included. Products were digested with the endonuclease Taq I and subsequently sequenced. RESULTS: Different anisakids (Anisakis simplex/Hysterothylacium aduncum) yield different amplification (960 and 1,010 bp fragments) and restriction patterns, which were in accord with previously described patterns of the same parasites from others geographical regions. CONCLUSIONS: The high sensitivity of the test and the absence of intraspecies variations confirms the utility of this assay in the identification of human parasites involved in human anisakiasis including larvae from resected biopsies.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

Sequence of mRNA coding for bindin, a species-specific sea urchin sperm protein required for fertilization.

Bindin, a major protein of the sea urchin acrosome granule, mediates the species-specific adhesion and binding of sperm to egg required to effect fertilization. We report the isolation and sequence of bindin cDNA clones prepared from Strongylocentrotus purpuratus testis RNA. The bindin gene appears to be productively expressed only in males and only in testes. The protein is produced from a 51-kDa precursor, which is subsequently processed to yield the mature 24-kDa bindin protein.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2005

Complementation analyses suggest species-specific functions of the SNF5 homology domain.

Inactivation on both alleles of the hSNF5/INI1 tumor suppressor gene which encodes a subunit of the human SWI/SNF chromatin remodelling complex occurs in most malignant rhabdoid tumors. No paralog of hSNF5/INI1 is identified in the human genome. In contrast, it has two homologs in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, SNF5 and SFH1 which encode core components of the ySWI/SNF and RSC complexes, respectively. The homology mainly concerns an approximately 200 amino acid region termed the SNF5 homology domain. We have tested the ability of the hSNF5/INI1-wild type gene product and of chimerical constructs in which the yeast SNF5 domains were replaced by that of the human protein, to complement yeast snf5 and sfh1 phenotypes. Neither growth deficiencies on different carbon sources of snf5 yeasts nor the lethality of the sfh1 phenotype could be rescued. This strongly suggests that the SNF5 homology domain presents species-specific functions.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed1986

Protective immunity to malaria. Studies with cloned lines of Plasmodium chabaudi chabaudi and P. berghei in CBA/Ca mice. II. The effectiveness and inter- or intra-species specificity of the passive transfer of immunity with serum.

Serum was obtained from CBA/Ca mice infected, reinfected or superinfected with parasites taken one or two syringe passages from cryopreserved reference stabilates derived from cloned lines of the AS or CB isolates of P.c. chabaudi. Serum was also collected from mice superinfected with parasites derived from a cloned line of P. berghei KSP-11. When injected into normal syngeneic recipients subsequently challenged with homologous or heterologous parasites, these sera mediated some or all of the following modifications to the breakthrough parasitaemias which invariably occurred (i) an extension of the pre-patent period (ii) an extension of the time taken for the parasitaemia to reach 2% (iii) a reduction of peak parasitaemia (iv) protraction of the initial peak of parasitaemia. These modifications were particularly evident with serum from superinfected mice and to a lesser extent with serum from animals reinfected once after recovery from a primary infection. Serum taken during the course of such a primary infection produced extended pre-2% periods, other effects being only marginal. Serum mediated modifications produced by reinfection and superinfection serum appeared largely species-specific with a limited degree of cross-reactivity. Intraspecific specificity was also apparent with serum from P.c. chabaudi AS or CB reinfected or superinfected mice, although marginal cross-immunity was again observed. When analysed by the fluorescent antibody technique on smears of methanol fixed parasitized erythrocytes, reinfection and superinfection sera were almost totally cross-reactive both within and across species. Preliminary evidence that parasites breaking through the effects of these sera may constitute a phenotypic antigenic variant is presented and possible mechanisms for the parasitaemia modifying effects of the various sera discussed.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Substrate- and species-specific processing enzymes for chloroplast precursor proteins.

Using different precursors of chloroplast proteins and stromal extracts from both Chlamydomonas reinhardii and pea chloroplasts, we analysed the specificity of stroma-localized processing peptidases. By gel filtration of a stromal extract from isolated Chlamydomonas chloroplasts, fractions could be separated containing enzymic activities for processing the precursors of the small subunit of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase (pSS) and of the protein OEE1 from the photosynthetic water-splitting complex (pOEE1). The enzymes differed not only in molecular size, but also in their sensitivity to inhibitors and in their pH optima. Obviously, in the stroma of Chlamydomonas chloroplasts different peptidases exist for processing of pSS and pOEE1, the latter being converted into an intermediate-sized form, iOEE1, which was found to be further processed to mature OEE1 by a thylakoid-associated protease. To study the species-specificity of the stromal peptidases, stromal extracts from Chlamydomonas and pea chloroplasts were incubated with pSS from either of these organisms. In the heterologous combinations, the precursors were partly hydrolysed, but not to the correct size. In importation assays, pSS from pea (but also the precursor of the ribosomal protein L12 from spinach) could not enter into chloroplasts from Chlamydomonas. In contrast, the algal pSS was imported into chloroplasts from pea, although it was not processed to mature SS. Our results indicate that the importation machinery and the pSS-processing enzymes in higher plants and green algae have different specificities and that in Chlamydomonas several stromal peptidases for different precursor proteins exist.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Species-specific beta-N-acetylgalactosaminylation of serum IgG proteins.

Lectin blot analysis of bovine, goat, human, rabbit and mouse serum immunoglobulin G (IgG) samples revealed that Wisteria floribunda agglutinin (WFA) binds to the heavy chains of bovine, goat and human serum IgG proteins but not those of the rabbit and mouse proteins. WFA-positive light chain bands were also detected in bovine, goat and human serum IgG samples only after the filters were treated with Arthrobacter ureafaciens sialidase. The WFA-binding to these IgG proteins was abolished by treatment of the filter with sialidase and then beta-N-acetylhexosaminidase or N-glycanase prior to incubation with the lectin. WFA-agarose column chromatography of the oligosaccharides released by hydrazinolysis from the IgG samples followed by reduction with NaB3H4 revealed that 0.15, 0.09 and 0.07% of the total oligosaccharides from bovine, goat and human serum IgG samples bind to the column, respectively. Partial characterization of WFA-positive bovine IgG oligosaccharides by Bio-Gel P-4 column chromatography suggested that the major oligosaccharide is of non-fucosylated biantennary complex-type. These results indicate that beta-N-acetylgalactosaminylation occurs to N-linked sugar chains of heavy and light chains of IgG proteins in a species-specific manner.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

A safety assessment of coumarin taking into account species-specificity of toxicokinetics.

Coumarin (1,2-benzopyrone) is a naturally occurring fragrant compound found in a variety of plants and spices. Exposure to the general public is through the diet and from its use as a perfume raw material in personal care products. High doses of coumarin by the oral route are known to be associated with liver toxicity in rodents. Chronic oral bioassays conducted in the 1990s reported liver tumors in rats and mice and lung tumors in mice, raising concerns regarding the safety of coumarin. Since then, an extensive body of research has focused on understanding the etiology of these tumors. The data support a conclusion that coumarin is not DNA-reactive and that the induction of tumors at high doses in rodents is attributed to cytotoxicity and regenerative hyperplasia. The species-specific target organ toxicity is shown to be related to the pharmacokinetics of coumarin metabolism, with data showing rats to be particularly susceptible to liver effects and mice to be particularly susceptible to lung effects. A quantitative human health risk assessment that integrates both cancer and non-cancer effects is presented, confirming the safety of coumarin exposure from natural dietary sources as well as from its use as a perfume in personal care products.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Platelet Ca(2+)ATPases : a plural, species-specific, and multiple hypertension-regulated expression system.

Gaining insight into nonmuscle Ca(2+) signaling requires basic knowledge of the major structures involved. We investigated the expression of platelet Ca(2+)ATPases in normal and hypertension-associated abnormal Ca(2+) signaling. First, overall identification of normotensive Wistar-Kyoto rat Ca(2+)ATPases was attempted by looking for newly described human platelet 3'-end alternatively spliced sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+)ATPases (SERCA) 3b mRNA and plasma membrane Ca(2+)ATPase (PMCA) 1b and 4b proteins, in addition to SERCA2b and SERCA3a isoforms. For SERCAs, comparative analyses of human and Wistar-Kyoto rat SERCA3 platelet mRNA by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) followed by sequencing established that human platelets coexpressed SERCA3b and a third SERCA3c, while rat cells were devoid of them but expressed a still unknown splice variant that we termed rSERCA3b/3c. Its identification using 3'-end SERCA3 gene and rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE)-PCR studies showed that it results from an additional SERCA3 alternative splicing process, which uses a second alternative polyadenylation site located in the last intron. For PMCAs, with the use of gene-specific RT-PCR followed by sequencing and Western blotting using 5F10 monoclonal antibody, expression of human and rat platelet PMCA1b and PMCA4b was similar. Second, comparative analysis of these newly identified Ca(2+)ATPases and SERCA3a in age-matched spontaneously hypertensive rat platelets demonstrated (1) a marked downregulation of rSERCA3b/3c, which became null, and a 1.71-fold increase in SERCA3a and (2) an opposite regulation of the 2 PMCAs, namely, a 3.3-fold decrease in PMCA1b mRNA and a 3.7-fold increase in PMCA4b mRNA. Hence, platelets coexpress multiple, diverse, and species-specific Ca(2+)ATPases, including a novel fourth SERCA3. Moreover, expression of PMCA (1b and 4b), SERCA3a, and rSERCA3b/3c was modulated in rat hypertension. Hence, Ca(2+)ATPases should be regarded as constituting a new rational basis for the understanding of nonmuscle cell Ca(2+) signaling.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Species-specific sperm-egg interaction affects the utility of a heterologous bovine in vitro fertilization system for evaluating antelope sperm.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate cryopreserved fringe-eared (FE) oryx (Oryx gazella callotis) sperm function using a heterologous in vitro fertilization (IVF) system previously developed to study scimitar-horned (SH) oryx (Oryx dammah) spermatozoa. Semen was collected by electroejaculation from FE oryx (n = 2) and SH oryx (n = 2), evaluated immediately postcollection, and cryopreserved. Thawed spermatozoa were evaluated for motility, forward progression, and acrosomal status immediately post-thaw, after Percoll-separation, and 1, 2, 3, and 8 h after culture in IVF medium. In vitro-matured cow oocytes (n = 924) were inseminated with either domestic bull, FE, or SH oryx spermatozoa and after an 8-h coincubation period, half the oocytes were fixed and examined for sperm penetration, polyspermy, and male pronuclear formation. The remaining oocytes were placed into in vitro culture and evaluated for cleavage after 48 h. Overall, there were no between-species differences in sperm motility and acrosome integrity. However, an effect of time (P < 0.05) and a species-by-time interaction (P < 0.05) were detected for both parameters. Penetration, male pronuclear formation, and embryo cleavage were high (>90%, >85%, and >70%, respectively) for oocytes inseminated with domestic bull and SH oryx spermatozoa and did not differ (P > 0.05) between species. In contrast, very few oocytes (2.8%, 4 of 141) inseminated with FE oryx sperm were penetrated. Cleavage was rare (8.0%, 16 of 200) in oocytes inseminated with FE oryx spermatozoa and did not differ (P > 0.05) from that in parthenogenetic controls (4.2%, 3 of 72). Furthermore, FE oryx spermatozoa were incapable of penetrating zona-free cow oocytes. These results indicate that species-specific differences in gamete interaction may exist even between very closely related nondomestic bovids.

Acrosome↗
PubMed1999

Acquisition of species-specific O-linked carbohydrate chains from oviducal mucins in Rana arvalis. A case study.

The extracellular matrix surrounding amphibian eggs is composed of mucin-type glycoproteins, highly O-glycosylated and plays an important role in the fertilization process. Oligosaccharide-alditols were released from the oviducal mucins of the anuran Rana arvalis by alkali-borohydride treatment in reduced conditions. Neutral and acidic oligosaccharides were fractionated by ion-exchange chromatographies and purified by HPLC. Each compound was identified by matrix assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight (MALDI-TOF) spectrometry, NMR spectroscopy, electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectroscopy (ESI-MS/MS) and permethylation analyses. This paper reports on the structures of 19 oligosaccharide-alditols, 12 of which have novel structures. These structures range in size from disaccharide to octasaccharide. Some of them are acidic, containing either a glucuronic acid or, more frequently, a sulfate group, located either at the 6 position of GlcNAc or the 3 or 4 positions of Gal. This latter sulfation is novel and has only been characterized in the species R. arvalis. This structural analysis led to the establishment of several novel carbohydrate structures, demonstrating the structural diversity and species-specificity of amphibian glycoconjugates.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Species-specific differences in expression of G-protein-coupled receptor kinase (GRK) 7 and GRK1 in mammalian cone photoreceptor cells: implications for cone cell phototransduction.

Desensitization plays an important role in the rapid termination of G-protein signaling pathways. This process, which involves phosphorylation by a G-protein-coupled receptor kinase (GRK) followed by arrestin binding, has been studied extensively in the rod photoreceptor cell of the mammalian retina. In contrast, less is known regarding desensitization in cone photoreceptor cells, which occurs more rapidly than in rod cells. Recently, our laboratory has cloned a novel GRK family member, GRK7, from the retina of a cone-dominant mammal, the 13-lined ground squirrel. Here we report the cloning of GRK7 from rod-dominant pig and human retinas, suggesting that this kinase plays a role in human visual signaling. Because GRK1 (rhodopsin kinase), the GRK that mediates rhodopsin desensitization in the rod cell, is reportedly expressed in both rods and cones, a detailed comparison of the localization of the two kinases is a necessary step toward determining their potential roles in cone visual signaling. Immunocytochemical analysis using antibodies selective for these two GRKs unexpectedly demonstrated species-specific differences in GRK7 and GRK1 expression in cones. In pigs and dogs, cones express only GRK7, whereas in mice and rats, we detected only GRK1 in cones. These results suggest that either GRK7 or GRK1 may participate in cone opsin desensitization, depending on the expression pattern of the kinases in different species. In contrast, GRK7 and GRK1 are coexpressed in monkey and human cones, suggesting that coordinate regulation of desensitization by both kinases may occur in primates.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Species-specific epitopes exist on the cytoplasmic amino-terminal domain of erythrocyte band 3 protein.

Monoclonal antibodies (P3-9H, P3-1F, P3-2H, P3-4A, and P3-4C) to human erythrocyte band 3 were produced using human erythrocyte membranes as the immunogen. All epitopes defined by these antibodies were found on the amino-terminal cytoplasmic domain of erythrocyte band 3. The antibodies crossreacted variously with erythrocyte band 3 of primates (chimpanzee, orangutan, Rhesus monkey, Japanese monkey, spider monkey, and capuchin monkey) in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. P3-9H did not crossreact with erythrocyte band 3 of any primate examined; P3-1F crossreacted only with that of chimpanzee; P3-2H crossreacted with erythrocyte band 3 of chimpanzee, spider monkey, and capuchin monkey; and P3-4A and P3-4C crossreacted with erythrocyte band 3 of all primates examined. These results suggest that evolutional changes in primates are accumulated in the amino-terminal cytoplasmic domain of band 3 and that species-specific epitopes exist on this domain.

Animals↗