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Pupil cycle time and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection.

The pupil cycle time (PCT) was measured in 22 HIV-positive patients and 22 age/sex-matched controls. Of the HIV-positive group, 13 (59%) met the Centre for Disease Control classification of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) defining illness. There was a highly statistically significant difference in the PCT between the HIV-infected group and the control group (p < 0.0001, Student's t-test). Within the HIV-infected group there was no statistically significant difference in the PCT between those patients with full-blown AIDS and the others. This study suggests that HIV infection may be associated with subclinical ocular autonomic dysfunction even in the earlier stages of HIV infection.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗

Communicating about pupils in mainstream school with special health needs: the NHS perspective.

AIM: To add to previous research carried out with young people, parents and teachers, by investigating health staff's perspectives on the difficulties, and possibilities for, achieving good communication with school staff with regard to children in mainstream school with a chronic illness or physical disability. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A qualitative research study was carried out in one NHS Trust. Twenty semi-structured interviews were carried out with a purposive sample of health staff to cover the spectrum of professionals who have responsibility for meeting the needs of children with a chronic illness or physical disability in mainstream schools (paediatricians, school doctors, school nurses, specialist nurses, health visitors, GPs, speech and language therapists, paediatric occupational therapists, paediatric physiotherapists, clinical psychologists and psychiatrists). RESULTS: The extent to which health professionals communicated with school staff, and the way in which they went about it, varied widely. Communication was facilitated by joint meetings, shared documentation, and local policy development. Sources of difficulty in communication between health and education staff were: the parent as a conduit of information; the practical difficulties of arranging meetings; and lack of knowledge about other professionals' roles. The ethos of the school with regard to health matters, and the flow of information within health services, also had an impact on the communication process. Participants' recommendations focused on two key issues: clarification of the roles of health and education staff with regard to this group of pupils; and how information should flow from health to school staff. DISCUSSION: Many of the findings parallel the previous research with teachers, indicating agreement between professionals from different agencies about aspects of the communication process which are problematic and require attention. The findings suggest that improving communication requires both joint work between health and education staff, and improvements to practice within each agency.

Child↗

Head lice in pupils of a primary school in Australia and implications for control.

BACKGROUND: Anecdotal reports suggest that head lice infestations are a common problem in school-aged children in Australia; however, only a few data are available. The present study aimed to determine the prevalence of infestation with head lice in children in an urban Australian school. METHODS: All 735 pupils from grades preschool to five of a government run primary school were invited to participate in the cross-sectional survey. Overall, 212 boys (46.5%) and 244 girls from 29 classes were examined. The main outcome measures were: (1) the detection of lice or eggs by visual examination of the child's head, and classification into 'not infested' and 'infested;' infested cases were further classified into 'active infestation' (lice or viable eggs found) or 'inactive infestation' (only unhatched eggs found); (2) for each child, a parent or guardian was asked to complete a standardized questionnaire. RESULTS: Of the 456 children examined, 33.7% (95% confidence interval = 95%-CI = [26.9%, 40.4%]) had evidence of infestation with head lice, 21.0% (95%-CI = [15.2%, 26.8%]) with active infestation. The prevalence of infestation (active plus inactive) varied greatly between classes, ranging from zero to 72.2% (p < 0.001). Head lice were more prevalent in girls than boys (p < 0.001). Analysis of questionnaires showed that 47.7% (95%-CI = [43.0%, 52.4%]) of the children had been infested with head lice in the previous 6 months. For children with active pediculosis capitis on examination, 14.0% (95%-CI = [7.9%, 22.4%]) of parents or guardians had not noticed the infestation. CONCLUSIONS: In an urban primary school in Australia, head lice infestation was present at a hyperendemic level. Clustering by class indicated the classroom as a main source of infestation. Control strategies implemented in schools and including the education of teachers and parents need to be evaluated.

Animals↗

Characterization of the pupil light reflex, electroretinogram and tonometric parameters in healthy rat eyes.

PURPOSE: To characterize the pupil light reflex (PLR), electroretinographic (ERG) and tonometric parameters in healthy rat eyes. METHODS: Brown Norway rats were used for experiments. The PLR was evaluated with a computerized pupillometer (n = 27), ERGs were recorded simultaneously from both eyes (n = 27) and IOP was measured with a Tonopen (n = 15). RESULTS: The analysis of the PLR parameters confirmed that the consensual PLR had a significantly smaller amplitude (0.1-0.2 mm; p = 0.03) and an increased latency time (p = 0.001) compared to the direct PLR. Electroretinography revealed an a-wave amplitude of 207.2 +/- 13 microV with a latency of 25.6 +/- 0.7 ms, and a b-wave 554.3 +/- 24.5 microV with a latency of 21.4 + 1.8 ms. The flicker ERG recording revealed amplitudes of 40.6 +/- 2.4 microV. Tonometry measurements revealed that isoflurane, but not halothane, anesthesia suppressed the IOP (non-anesthetized: 25.3 +/- 1.0 mmHg; 1% halothane + 30% NO: 26.2 +/- 1.1 (p > 0.1); 1% isoflurane + 30% NO: 20.1 + 1.6 (p < 0.05)). CONCLUSIONS: Consensual PLR in rats has a relative deficit compared to the direct PLR. Isoflurane anesthesia has a suppressive effect on the IOP in healthy rat eyes.

Anesthetics, Inhalation↗

Characterization of the pupil light reflex, electroretinogram and tonometric parameters in healthy mouse eyes.

PURPOSE: To characterize the pupil light reflex (PLR), electroretinographic (ERG) and tonometric parameters which might be of importance for the in vivo characterization of mouse models of chronic ocular hypertension. METHODS: C57/BL6 mice were used for experiments. The PLR was evaluated with a computerized pupillometer (n = 14), ERGs were recorded simultaneously from both eyes (n = 23) and IOP was measured with a modified Goldmann tonometer (n = 23). RESULTS: The analysis of the PLR parameters confirmed the consensual PLR did not have significantly different amplitude (p > 0.1) and latency time (p > 0.1) compared to the direct PLR. However, PLR velocity (p = 0.004) was significantly smaller in the consensual PLR. Electroretinography revealed a-wave amplitude of 168.3 +/- 9.6 microV with latency of 27.5 +/- 0.6 ms and b-wave 403 +/- 28.8 microV with latency of 22.7 +/- 0.6 ms. The flicker ERG recording revealed amplitudes of 20.6 +/- 2.4 microV. Tonometry experiments revealed that modified Goldmann tonometer measurements correlated well with invasive manometry (r(2) = 0.89). The mean IOP of the mouse was 15.3 +/- 0.6 mmHg. CONCLUSIONS: Consensual PLR in mice is relatively slower than the direct PLR, but retains the same degree of constriction comparing to the direct PLR. A modified Goldmann tonometer seems to be a reliable non-invasive tool for IOP measurements in mice.

Animals↗

Accommodation, convergence, pupil diameter and eye blinks at a CRT display flickering near fusion limit.

This study investigates possible effects of temporally modulated light stimulation near critical fusion frequency (CFF) when subjects observe a cathode ray tube (CRT) operated at different refresh rates. Various visual functions were measured in a series of tests of 2.5 min duration. In experiment 1, at a repetition rate of 50 Hz mean pupil size was 0.055 mm smaller than at 300 Hz. The precision of convergence and accommodation in binocular vision was not affected. In experiment 2, 300 Hz was compared with the lowest frequency that did not produce visible flicker for each subject. At the lower rate (55 to 90 Hz), mean accommodation in monocular vision was 0.06 D weaker, median eye blink duration was 6% shorter, and mean eye blink interval was 15% longer. Individual differences and possible fatigue effects of intermittent light at visual display units are discussed.

Accommodation, Ocular↗

Learning and behavioral correlates in learning-disabled pupils prone to heterozygous thalassemia and sicklemia.

The pilot study was designed to vindicate planning for large-scale detection and management of two parallel genetic blood disorders occurring in large numbers of Mediterranean- and black Americans; the heterozygous minor traits of thalassemia (Cooley's anemia) and sicklemia (sickle-cell anemia). Referred pupils (N=191) matched on schools, age, and learning difficulties associated with learning disabilities were compared as to presumed ethnic origin (n Mediterranean = 80; n black = 64; n "others" = 47) and incidence of trait-related learning and behavioral characteristics. Group mean differences on the study's criteria were found to be significant. Both minor-trait prone groups equally indicated the associative effects, while the control group without tradt-predisposition showed a nonsignificant relationship, thus supporting the hypotheses and the need for large-scale research.

Achievement↗

Do homosexual teachers pose a risk to pupils?

Questionnaires were completed by 5,182 adults derived from one-wave area cluster samples in 6 metropolitan areas: 56% of homosexuals and 18% of heterosexuals reported having had a homosexual teacher, 12% of the men and 4% of the women said that the teacher made sexual advances toward them. A fifth of those with a homosexual teacher said they were influenced to regard homosexuality as socially acceptable; 4% said that the teacher influenced them to try homosexuality. About 1% of the sample reported that, as pupils, they had sexual relations with at least one of their elementary or secondary teachers. Eight respondents reported their first sexual experience was with an elementary or secondary teacher and that one of these experiences was homosexual. Of 49 other reported sexual experiences with teachers, 12 were homosexual. The findings that homosexuals more frequently claimed to have had homosexual teachers and more frequently reported homosexual sex with teachers tend to fit the contagion model of homosexuality--that homosexuality is taught by or caught by sexual interaction with homosexual practitioners.

Adolescent↗

An epidemiological survey of cystic echinococcosis among Tibetan school pupils in West China.

Human cystic echinococcosis (CE) caused by infection with a larval stage of Echinococcus granulosus is a serious public health problem in West China. Because CE is a zoonosis, dogs and livestock are important hosts in transmission. Tibetans, especially teenagers, have a natural relationship with these definitive and intermediate hosts in West China and although some areas of Tibet are therefore CE-endemic, few, if any, detailed community studies have been reported. A total of 451 Tibetan school pupils living in rural Tianzhou County in Gansu Province in West China were investigated by mass ELISA and IHA with ultrasound scanning back-up, and positivity rates were found to be 9.5% and 1.6%, respectively, with 0.98% confirmation of hepatic CE in four asymptomatic cases. Seropositivity rates varied with age between 6.2% and 13.2%. IHA found that females had a significantly greater risk of infection than males, a ratio of about 3:1. Age-specific immunopositive rates increased from 6.2% in the 8-13-years age group to 13.2% in those aged over 18. The study found that keeping dogs and herding animals had no effect on rates of infection but that the number of sheep owned by a family correlated with infection rates. The rate of infection in people who hunted was significantly higher than in those who did not. Level of education was found to have no effect on rates of infection.

Adolescent↗

Condom awareness and intended use: gender and religious contrasts among school pupils in rural Masaka, Uganda.

A cross-sectional questionnaire survey examining knowledge, attitudes and intended use of condoms was conducted among 1,821 pupils (mean age = 14.2 years, range = 9--24) from 27 primary and secondary schools in rural south western Uganda. Condom education is not provided in Ugandan schools, but both boys and girls had relatively high overall levels of knowledge, even though boys demonstrated a higher level than girls. This suggests that respondents had successfully obtained reliable information from other sources. Boys and girls had similar and fairly positive attitudes towards condoms, although considerable shyness was expressed, both about discussing condoms with a partner and buying them. Fifty-eight per cent said that they themselves would use a condom if one were available, but girls were far less likely than boys to say so. Roman Catholics (46% of the sample) were less knowledgeable and less positive about condoms than non-Catholics, and the boys in this group, but not the girls, were also much less likely to say they would use one. Possible interventions based on these findings are discussed, and a research agenda for the delivery of assertiveness training to girls is proposed.

Adolescent↗

Smoking and pupil attitudes towards school: the implications for health education with young people. Results from the WHO Study of Health Behaviour among Schoolchildren.

It has been previously established that young people who have negative attitudes towards school and education are more likely to experiment with cigarette smoking and to become regular smokers. This paper explores this relationship across 10 countries (Austria, Belgium, Finland, Hungary, Israel, Norway, Scotland, Sweden, Switzerland and Wales) using data available from a unique cross-national study of children's health behaviour. The findings show that there is a strong association between regular smoking and alienation from school, which is consistent for both boys and girls in the different cultures and social organizations represented by participating countries. The implications of these findings for designing and managing health education programmes are considered. The importance of providing a supportive school environment and of identifying ways to improve the relevance of school to pupils is emphasized.

Adolescent↗

Awareness of child sexual abuse prevention education among parents of Grade 3 elementary school pupils in Fuxin City, China.

Several recent studies on child sexual abuse (CSA) in Chinese society have shown that the problem is not uncommon, and is associated with poor mental health and health-related risk behaviors of abused youth. It is very important to understand and improve public awareness of CSA prevention, especially for the parents. However, there are few published reports on the problem of parents' awareness. To fill this gap, knowledge, attitudes and practice of CSA prevention education were explored in 385 parents of Grade 3 pupils from four schools in Fuxin City of Liaoning Province in the northeast part of China by self-administered anonymous questionnaires. Among this sample, more than 80% of parents approved of school CSA prevention education. However, at the same time, 47.3% of parents expressed some concern that this education may induce the children to learn too much about 'sex'. Overall, about 60% of parents had told their children that their 'private parts' should not be touched by others and discussed strategies of 'Say "No!", Leave and Tell' in dealing with CSA situations or the situations that may lead to CSA. Only 4.2% of parents had provided books or other material about CSA prevention for their children. The parents' CSA prevention knowledge was inadequate. The findings from this research will be useful in developing CSA prevention education programs in schools and communities, designed to improve parents' knowledge and practice of CSA prevention.

Adult↗

Pupil miosis within 5 minutes in darkness is a valid and sensitive quantitative measure of alertness: application in daytime sleepiness associated with sleep apnea.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: The regulation of arousal and pupillary functions may be intimately linked via activity in the nucleus locus coeruleus. In this preliminary study, we tested the validity of the gradual pupillary miosis during 5 minutes in darkness, as a quantitative physiologic index of the arousal state of the brain. DESIGN: Cross-sectional assessment of 2 groups with between-group comparison and correlational analyses within the patient group. PARTICIPANTS: Eleven unmedicated male patients recently diagnosed with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) with no comorbid conditions who had undergone polysomnography to assess OSA severity and sleep variables, and 11 sex- and age-matched healthy controls. INTERVENTIONS: Sampling of the resting pupil diameter (RPD) over 5 minutes in darkness in the morning and in the afternoon hours, using an infrared video pupillometer. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: The RPD was smaller, indicating a lower level of arousal, in the patient group compared with controls in both the morning and the afternoon; the RPD showed a significant circadian reduction in the afternoon only in the patient group. Within the patient group, the RPD correlated negatively with Epworth Sleepiness Scale scores and Arousal Index and positively with the lowest oxygen saturation during the night. Controlling for the effect of body mass index, the relationship between RPD and subjective sleepiness was lost, whereas the relationship with most of the objective indexes of OSA severity was improved. CONCLUSIONS: The 5-minute pupillary miosis in darkness holds promise as a simple, fast-to-administer, valid, and sensitive test for the objective assessment of excessive daytime sleepiness.

Adult↗

The prevalence of bronchial asthma among high school pupils in Holon (Israel).

Three-thousand-and-fifty-one high school pupils aged between 14 and 18 years were examined in the Holon area (central Israel), during the years 1985-1989. Four-hundred-and-fifty-eight had previous recurrent episodes of wheezing (15.01 +/- 2.4 per cent). Two-hundred-and-seventy-five adolescents had suffered from bronchospasm crisis over the last 12 months (9 +/- 0.80 per cent) and were diagnosed as active asthmatics.

Adolescent↗

Knowledge of the European Code against Cancer in sixth-form pupils and teachers in Asturias (Spain).

Cancer is the second major cause of death in Spain and in most industrialized countries. It is also the main cause of premature death. The objective of this study was to evaluate what is known and practiced of the European Code against Cancer by students and teachers of the final course of secondary education in Asturias (Spain). Two questionnaires (the official one given by the European Code against Cancer and another, designed by us) were given to a representative sample of 695 students and 160 teachers. The mean score of knowledge for teachers and pupils, respectively, was 6.41 and 5.05, out of a possible maximum of 16 points. This difference was statistically significant (Student's t-test = 6.63; P > 0.0001). A relationship was also found in females between knowledge and practice in relation to food intake, tobacco and alcohol consumption, and cancer. Our results demonstrate a lack of knowledge and practice of the Code, which places at risk the main objective of the Europe against Cancer Programme to reduce cancer mortality by 15% by the year 2000. In our opinion more informational-educational programmes are therefore necessary.

Alcohol Drinking↗

Nonlinear shunting model of the pupil light reflex.

A leaky-integrator equation with shunting is introduced to represent processing at the retinal level as part of a system of delay-differential equations modelling the pupil light reflex. This system of equations exhibits the correct behaviour in response to monocular and binocular sinusoidal inputs. Understanding such behaviour can help to establish (non-invasively) the location and nature of nonlinearities in the reflex arc and how signals from the two eyes combine.

Animals↗

The impact of war upon the pupils' growth in southern Croatia.

In order to assess the influence of war calamities on the pupils' growth rate, the height, weight, and relative weight of children from Split at the time of entering two major elementary schools (age about 6.5 years) and some 10 months later, during the two pre-war years (i.e. 1988/1989 and 1989/1990) and the two years of the war against Croatia (i.e. 1990/1991 and 1991/1992) were compared. A notable increase in body weight, ranging from 12.24 to 14.50% (compared with 8.57-11.93%; t = 1.23, P > 0.05), but not in height was observed in the first, and a significant acceleration in the longitudinal growth (4.53-4.73% as compared with 3.38-4.24%; t = 4.01, P < 0.01) but not in weight gain was noted in the second war year. These unexpected findings lead to a conclusion that the war atrocities may affect the children's growth rate differently, depending on the amount and quality of the consumed food, on the level of energy expenditure, and possibly on the variable impact of emotional stress.

Anthropometry↗

Clinical atopy and associated factors in primary-school pupils.

To investigate potential risk factors for clinical atopy in childhood, we obtained cross-sectional data from a cohort of 1376 8-year-old pupils. Parental atopy (hay fever, asthma, eczema), gestational age, maternal smoking habits, and the child's history of asthma, hay fever, and eczema were ascertained by questionnaire. Combining the history and the result of a skin prick test using seven aeroallergens, we defined the child's atopic diseases. Of the population evaluated, 25.4% were categorized as atopic (10.2% allergic asthma, 17.3% eczema, 6.9% hay fever). As compared with the clear nonatopics (40.2%), parental atopic diseases were more prevalent in each of the atopic groups. Significant associations of the parents' and child's disease were obvious for eczema and hay fever. Low gestational age (LGA) was more frequent in children with any atopy or with an allergic asthma (odds ratio (OR) 1.7; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.02-2.97; OR 2.8; 95% CI 1.5-5.4). Hay fever and allergic asthma occurred less frequently in girls (OR 0.5; 95% confidence interval 0.3-0.8; OR 0.6; 95% CI 0.4-0.9). In conclusion, our data underline the importance of parental atopy for the clinical outcome in the offspring. In addition, LGA appears to be a risk factor for allergic asthma and for general atopy in later life.

Austria↗