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PubMed1985

A reconsideration of the economic consequences of marital dissolution.

A close look at the income flows in the years following a divorce or separation reveals marked differences in the distribution of effects. The economic consequences of divorce are especially adverse for women. In most cases, children remain with the mother, who usually has considerably lower potential labor market earnings than her former husband, partly because her responsibilities for the children are likely to reduce her labor supply and may have limited her past human capital investments. Alimony and child support are the principal mechanisms for transfers from the ex-husband to the ex-wife, but payments are rarely frequent or sizeable enough to make up for an appreciable amount of the labor income lost through the departure of the ex-husband. Human capital investments on the part of the mother have a modest effect on her economic situation in the years following the divorce. Most men who divorce or separate are immediately better off because they retain most of their labor incomes, typically do not pay large amounts of alimony and child support to their ex-wives, and no longer have to provide for the level of needs associated with their former families. Much more important than growth in the ex-wife's own labor income is the role of a new husband's labor income upon her remarriage. More than half of the white women remarry within five years following a divorce or separation; the comparable fraction for black women is less than half. An interesting question is whether the currently unmarried would enjoy the same kind of economic benefits, were they to remarry, as women who have remarried. Estimates from a model of the new husband's labor income, adjusted for selection bias inherent in the process of remarriage, indicate that the currently unmarried would probably not gain equal benefits if they were to remarry. The expected labor income of potential husbands of black women averages only about $5000--a modest amount when compared with the alternatives available to these women.

Black or African American↗
PubMed2006

Socioeconomic differentials in cause-specific mortality among South Korean adolescents.

BACKGROUND: There is inconsistent evidence regarding the presence of a socioeconomic differential in adolescent all-cause and cause-specific mortality. This study examines possible socioeconomic mortality differentials in Korean adolescents. Method A total of 330 321 boys and 311 830 girls aged 10-19, who are health insurance beneficiaries for civil servants and private school teachers of Korean Health Insurance Cooperation, were followed for 9 years (1995-2003). Parental income information was linked to national death certificate data. RESULTS: For boys, all-cause mortality showed a graded inverse relationship with income level in both 10-14 year olds (RR = 1.64, 95% CI: 1.40-1.91) and 15-19 year olds (RR = 1.68, 95% CI: 1.40-1.91). The major contributor was mortality differentials from external causes, with differentials of transport accident death the most important. Mortality from circulatory disease was higher in the lowest income groups in 15-19 year olds (RR = 2.21, 95% CI: 1.09-4.50). A significant socioeconomic gradient of non-external cause mortality was found in 15-19 year olds. For girls, socioeconomic differentials were less evident than boys. The all-cause mortality gradient for girls was smaller than for boys and only significant between the lowest and the highest tertile in both 10-14 year olds and 15-19 year olds (RR = 1.33, 95% CI: 1.02-1.72, RR = 1.38, 95% CI: 1.11-1.72, respectively). There were significant socioeconomic mortality differentials in all external causes and transport accidents and a marginally significant difference in suicide mortality for 10-19 year olds. Mortality from non-external causes showed no social gradient in girls. CONCLUSIONS: Socioeconomic differentials in all-cause mortality were observed in adolescents, even in early youth. This pattern might also apply to mortality from non-external causes, especially cardiovascular disease in 15-19 year old males.

Accidents↗
PubMed2000

Food security among preschool children.

A cross-sectional study of preschool children from 450 families from a residential colony of 'D' class hospital employees was undertaken to study food security & associated variables. Food security was established from (a) 24 hours recall method with 1 day weighment and (b) monthly food purchase inventory for cereals and pulses. Relationship between food secure status and variables of interest was studied from Chi-square value and odds ratio. Only 42.6% households and 54% preschool children from these households were calorically secure. Insecurity was the highest in 48-59 months age group. Per capital income, increasing birth order, family size, household size, less years of schooling of the mother, less than 4 meals per day and pulse insufficiency at home were associated with food insecurity. Per capita income ensures food availability at home. Family size and household size probably ensure distribution. Mother's education, frequent feeds more than four, ensure that it reaches the preschool children.

Child, Preschool↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Seven-year incidence and progression of obesity. Characterization of body fat pattern evolution in low-income Mexico City urban population.

BACKGROUND: There are no prospective data regarding the natural history of obesity in Mexico. The objective of this research was to investigate the incidence and progression of obesity in a low-income sector of Mexico City and to characterize evolution of body fat pattern distribution. METHODS: We carried out a population-based, prospective survey. Total on-site population was 15,532 persons; we determined as eligible all 35 to 64-year-old men and nonpregnant women for a total of 3,505. We interviewed at baseline 3,319 (94.7%) individuals and examined 2,282 (65.1%). At follow-up approximately 7 years later, we interviewed 1,764 (77.3%) subjects and examined 1,594 (69.9%). Measurements for all participants included height, weight, body mass index (BMI), waist-hip circumference, and subscapular and triceps skinfold thickness. Overweight was defined as BMI > or = 25 and < or = 29.9 kg/m2, while grade 1 obesity was BMI >or = 30 and < or = 34.9 kg/m2, grade 2 was > or = 35 and < or = 39.9, and grade 3, > or = 40 kg/m2. RESULTS: At baseline, prevalence of overweight was 48.6%, and grade 1 obesity, 22.7%, grade 2, 5.1%, and grade 3 obesity was 1.4%; at follow-up, these were 45.2, 25.8, 6.6, and 2.3%, respectively. At baseline, mean BMI in women was 29.1 +/- 0.16 kg/m2 and in men, 27.3 +/- 0.15 kg/m2; at follow-up, it reached 29.4 +/- 0.17 kg/m2 in women and 27.4 +/- 0.16 kg/m2 in men. Waist circumference increased from mean of 99.7 +/- 0.44 cm in women to 101.2 +/- 0.42 cm; in men, mean waist circumference rose from 95.2 +/- 0.38 to 96.7 +/- 0.39 cm. CONCLUSIONS: The obesity epidemic in this population possesses serious proportions that increase risk for severe metabolic consequences. There is a need for intervention.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The transtheoretical model of smoking: comparison of pregnant and nonpregnant smokers.

Pregnant smokers represent a special population of women smokers. Since smoking affects both the mother and the unborn child, it might be hypothesized that pregnant women should be highly motivated to quit smoking during pregnancy. Results from both naturalistic studies and intervention studies have generally shown only modest changes in smoking during pregnancy. To help design more effective interventions tailored for this special population of smokers, more information is needed on how they differ from other smokers. The current study was designed to examine patterns and differences on constructs of the Transtheoretical Model between low-income culturally diverse pregnant and nonpregnant female smokers. Groups were compared on the distribution of the stages of change. In addition, stage and group comparisons were conducted for the pros and cons of smoking, situational temptations to smoke, and the processes of change. The sample included 103 economically disadvantaged, culturally diverse pregnant women and a matched group of 103 nonpregnant women smokers. Pregnant smokers as a group were similar to their nonpregnant peers on their readiness for quitting. In general, the patterns observed across the stages of change were consistent with those seen in other populations of smokers. The primary difference found between the groups were on the cons of smoking, habit-related temptations to smoke, and experiential processes of change. Specifically, pregnant women perceived a less negative attitude toward their smoking, were more tempted in habit-related situations, and made less use of important experiential processes of change. The implications of these findings for designing interventions tailored for this special group of smokers are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Forming classes by stimulus frequency: behavior and theory.

Visual classification is the way we relate to different images in our environment as if they were the same, while relating differently to other collections of stimuli (e.g., human vs. animal faces). It is still not clear, however, how the brain forms such classes, especially when introduced with new or changing environments. To isolate a perception-based mechanism underlying class representation, we studied unsupervised classification of an incoming stream of simple images. Classification patterns were clearly affected by stimulus frequency distribution, although subjects were unaware of this distribution. There was a common bias to locate class centers near the most frequent stimuli and their boundaries near the least frequent stimuli. Responses were also faster for more frequent stimuli. Using a minimal, biologically based neural-network model, we demonstrate that a simple, self-organizing representation mechanism based on overlapping tuning curves and slow Hebbian learning suffices to ensure classification. Combined behavioral and theoretical results predict large tuning overlap, implicating posterior infero-temporal cortex as a possible site of classification.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Acute exposure to extremely hazardous substances: an analysis of environmental equity.

Although environmental equity research has focused primarily on chronic pollution sources, recent advances in environmental modeling and geographic information systems (GIS) provide a foundation for developing measures that can be used to evaluate differential exposure to acute pollution events. This article describes a methodology that uses facility-specific information to develop a risk surface representing the spatial distribution of accidental exposure to hazardous substances in a study area. Environmental pollution models recommended by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency were used in conjunction with GIS software to achieve this objective. The methodology was implemented in a large metropolitan region (Hillsborough County, Florida) to examine disproportionate exposure to worst-case releases of extremely hazardous substances. The environmental inequity hypothesis was investigated by directly comparing the distribution of potential exposures within each racial (non-White versus White) and income (below poverty versus above poverty) subgroup. The results indicate that a significantly large proportion of both non-White and impoverished individuals resided in areas potentially exposed to multiple accidental releases.

Environmental Exposure↗
PubMed1990

Recent trends and socio-demographic determinants of exercise participation in Australia.

Although sentiments about the positive health benefits of regular exercise have been expressed for many centuries, it is only in the past three decades that epidemiologic evidence has provided scientific support for the health benefits of being physically active. The evidence for the protective effect of physical activity is particularly strong with reference to cardiovascular disease, with the relative risk of being "inactive" compared to 'active' estimated to typically lie between 1.5 and 2.0. Despite the popular view that exercise participation has increased in recent years, estimates of trends in physical activity in Australian (and other) populations have been difficult to interpret because of the different measurements and surveys used. We examined data from population surveys using well validated, standardised methods to assess exercise participation, through National surveys between 1984 and 1987 conducted by the Commonwealth Department of the Arts, Sport, the Environment, Tourism and Territories (DASETT). Over the period in which the surveys were conducted, there appears to have been a slight increase in the proportion of Australians who participated in regular physical activity. There was a significant decline in the proportion who reported being totally sedentary--from 32.9 per cent in 1984 to 25.4 per cent in 1987. The data from all of the surveys were then pooled to give an overall sample size of 17053, and socio-demographic variables were examined in relation to exercise participation. Women, older people, the less well educated, and those on lower incomes were less likely to perform regular physical activity. Inequalities in the social distribution of exercise participation parallel those found for other health risk factors.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adult↗
PubMed1992

Role of ribosomes in Semliki Forest virus nucleocapsid uncoating.

The mechanism by which Semliki Forest virus nucleocapsids are uncoated was analyzed in living cells and in vitro. In BHK-21 cells, uncoating occurred with virtually complete efficiency within 1 to 2 min after the nucleocapsids entered the cytoplasm. It was inhibited by monensin, which blocks nucleocapsid penetration from endosomes. As previously shown for Sindbis virus (G. Wengler and G. Wengler, Virology 134:435-442, 1984), the capsid proteins from incoming nucleocapsids became associated with ribosomes. The ribosome-bound capsid proteins were distributed throughout the cytoplasm, while the viral RNA remained associated with vacuolar membranes. Using purified nucleocapsids and ribosomes in vitro, we established that ribosomes alone were sufficient for uncoating. Their role was to release the capsid proteins from nucleocapsids and irreversibly sequester them, in a process independent of energy and translation. The process was stoichiometric rather than catalytic, with a maximum of three to six capsid proteins bound to each ribosome. More than 80% of the capsid proteins could thus be removed from the viral RNA, resulting in the formation of nucleocapsid remnants whose sedimentation coefficients progressively decreased from 140S to 80S as uncoating proceeded.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Inequalities in health care use and expenditures: empirical data from eight developing countries and countries in transition.

This paper summarizes eight country studies of inequality in the health sector. The analyses use household data to examine the distribution of service use and health expenditures. Each study divides the population into "income" quintiles, estimated using consumption expenditures. The studies measure inequality in the use of and spending on health services. Richer groups are found to have a higher probability of obtaining care when sick, to be more likely to be seen by a doctor, and to have a higher probability of receiving medicines when they are ill, than the poorer groups. The richer also spend more in absolute terms on care. In several instances there are unexpected findings. There is no consistent pattern in the use of private providers. Richer households do not devote a consistently higher percentage of their consumption expenditures to health care. The analyses indicate that intuition concerning inequalities could result in misguided decisions. It would thus be worthwhile to measure inequality to inform policy-making. Additional research could be performed using a common methodology for the collection of data and applying more sophisticated analytical techniques. These analyses could be used to measure the impact of health policy changes on inequality.

Data Collection↗
PubMed2000

[Secular trends in childhood in the city of São Paulo, Brazil (1984-1996)].

OBJECTIVE: Data from two consecutive households surveys undertaken in mid-80s and mid-90s allow to characterize and analyse secular trends in infant and child anaemia in the city of S. Paulo, Brazil. METHODS: The two surveys included random population samples aged from zero to 59 months (1,016 in the period of 1984-85 and 1,280 in 1995-96). Capillary blood samples, collected by digital puncture in the two surveys, were analysed regarding their haemoglobin concentration. The anaemic status was determined when haemoglobin concentration was below 11 g/dL. For each survey, the study of the social distribution of child anaemia took into account tertiles of the per capita family income. For the study of the determinants of secular trends, hierarchical causal models, multivariate regression analyses and calculations analogous to the ones used to assess population attributable risks were applied. RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: In the time span from the first to the second survey, there was a significant reduction in the average haemoglobin concentration (from 11.6 g/dl to 11.0 g/dl), as well as a considerable increase in anaemia prevalence (from 35.6% to 46.9%). Unfavourable trends were observed in both sexes, all age groups and all income strata. Trends were still less favourable among the poorest families, aggravating the social burden related to child anaemia. Changes in distal (family income and maternal schooling) and proximal determinants (breast or bottle-feeding) of child anaemia were positive in the study period and therefore they cannot explain the increase in the disease. A low iron diet could explain the high prevalence of anaemia in both surveys but could not explain its further increase.

Anemia↗
PubMed2000

[Secular trends in diarrhea disease of childhood in the city of São Paulo, Brazil (1984-1996)].

OBJECTIVE: Data from two consecutive household surveys undertaken in mid-80s and mid-90s allow to characterize and analyse secular trends in infant and child diarrhea in the city of S. Paulo, Brazil. METHODS: The two surveys included random population samples aged from zero to 59 months of age (1,016 in the period of 1984-85 and 1,280 in 1995-96). In both surveys the instant prevalence of diarrhea (proportion of examined individuals reporting three or more episodes of liquid stools in 24 hours) and the annual incidence of hospitalizations due to the disease were calculated. These two indicators were estimated from household interviews conducted by pediatricians with the children's mothers. In both surveys the interviews were distributed throughout a period of almost 12 months to assure a uniform coverage of the various areas of the city during the four seasons. For each survey, the study of the social distribution of the disease took into account tertiles of the per capita family income. For the study of the determinants of secular trends, hierarchical causal models, multivariate regression analyses and calculations analogous to the ones used to assess population attributable risks were applied. RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: In the time span from the first to the second survey, there was substantial reduction in both the prevalence of diarrhea (from 1.70% to 0.90%) and the hospitalizations due to the disease (from 2.21 to 0.79 hospitalizations per 100 children-year). A more significant reduction was observed among the third poorest families, narrowing the social gradient relative to the disease. An increase in family income and improvement in water supply could substantially explain part of the decline in the disease and, for children under two years of age, a discrete increase in breast-feeding may have also played a positive role.

Brazil↗
PubMed2000

[Secular trends in respiratory diseases of childhood in the city of São Paulo, Brazil (1984-1996)].

OBJECTIVE: Data from two consecutive household surveys undertaken in mid-80s and mid-90s allow to characterize and analyse secular trends in infant and child respiratory diseases in the city of S. Paulo, Brazil. METHODS: The two surveys included random population samples aged from zero to 59 months (1,016 in the period of 1984-85 and 1,280 in 1995-96). In both surveys the instant prevalence of high respiratory diseases (above the epiglottis) and low respiratory diseases with or without wheezing were calculated. All sampled children were examined in their household at a random day by trained pediatricians using standardized procedures. The examinations included medical history, past respiratory diseases and a complete physical examination. In both surveys the examinations were distributed throughout a period of almost 12 months to assure a uniform coverage of the various areas of the city along the four seasons of the year. For each survey, the study of the social distribution of the diseases took into account tertiles of the per capita family income. For the study of the determinants of secular trends, hierarchical causal models, multivariate regression analyses and calculations analogous to the ones used to assess population attributable risks were applied. RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: In the time span from the first to the second survey, there was a substantial increase in the prevalence of both low (from 22.2% to 38.8%) and high respiratory diseases (from 6.0% to 10.0% and from 0.8% to 2.8%, without and with wheezing, respectively). In the case of high respiratory disease and low respiratory disease without wheezing, an increase in prevalence was observed among all social strata, which did not interfere with the slightly less favourable situation of the lower income groups. In the case of low respiratory disease with wheezing, the increase was only observed among middle and low-income groups, being particularly high among the lower income group, yielding a significant inverse gradient between income and respiratory disease. Positive changes in distal (family income and maternal schooling) and in intermediate determinants related to housing characteristics would have resulted in a decline, not an increase, in the prevalence of respiratory diseases in the city. The duplication in the attendance rate to day care nurseries seen in the period could have counterbalanced the positive effect due to socioeconomic and housing variables but would not be enough to explain an increase in the disease.

Brazil↗
PubMed2004

[Reproductive or domestic work].

The objective of this article is to describe the evolution of reproductive work and to analyse those factors related to its distribution. The analysis has been based on data from various Time-use Surveys (Women Institute 1993, 1996, 2001) as well as on data from different regional surveys: Andalusia, the Basque Country, Madrid and the metropolitan area of Barcelona. In the period 1993-2001, the amount of time devoted by men to housekeeping in Spain increased by 35% while women's time declined by 5%. Yet, in 2001 women's dedication to housekeeping was twice that of men's (7.2 vs 3.1 h daily). However, the imbalance in sharing of housework declined among younger people. Union formation and growing family size increase women's housework intensifying the uneven distribution of household chores. When women are employed and have higher educational and income levels, dedication to household tasks decreases and gender inequalities are reduced. In spite of growing male participation in housework, reproductive work is still mainly women's responsibility. The recent legal, social and cultural changes have not been able to eradicate the traditional model of assigning reproductive work in the home.

Female↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Entry of cyclic nucleotides into frog muscles in vivo and in vitro].

The radioactive isotopes of cyclic nucleotides were used to study the possibility of their income to the isolated frog muscle from the environment as well as their distribution between blood plasma and muscle after injection to an animal. It is shown that the intracellular levels of nucleotides may be considerably higher after soaking the isolated muscle in 10(-6) M cGMP or 10(-4) cAMP solutions. After the cAMP injection into the lymphatic sac its content in blood and especially in muscles is high for a long time. In this case the label loss in muscles proceeds slower than in blood. A conclusion is drawn that conduction of studies on the artificial increase of the intracellular level of cyclic nucleotides by means of their injection to an animal is appropriate.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

[The behavior of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) in a water purification plant. II. A mathematical balancing of the Ruhleben purification plant in Berlin].

Studies on PCB concentration and their distribution in waste water sludge of a municipal sewage plant are made. The incoming sewage has an average concentration of 813 ng/l, the effluent still contains 108 ng/l. The biggest part of the PCB is accumulated in the sludge. A comparison of the in- and output of PCB and the average PCB-patterns at the various sampling sites of the sewage plant shows that the PCB are not transformed or decomposed microbially.

Berlin↗
PubMed1988

Contemporary diet and body weight of Navajo women receiving food assistance: an ethnographic and nutritional investigation.

Preceded by 6 months of ethnographic research, a survey of 107 Navajo women, primarily food assistance participants, was conducted to describe and evaluate the contemporary Navajo diet. On the basis of results of 1-day dietary recalls, mean nutrient intakes were found to be below the RDA for calcium, phosphorus, iron, vitamin A, and energy. Sixty-three percent of the women in the sample were overweight or obese. The overall percentages of energy from fat, carbohydrate, and protein were closer to those recommended in the Dietary Goals than those in the current U.S. diet. The fat in the diet appeared to be primarily saturated, however, and fiber intake was lower than the U.S. average. Traditional foods were infrequently consumed. Women with higher incomes tended to have better diets. Commodity foods supplied by USDA's Food Distribution Program provided 43% of caloric intake and 37% to 57% of the intakes of all other nutrients except fat and vitamin C for the 72% of the sample participating in that program. It is concluded that the Food Distribution Program provides an important nutritional contribution to the contemporary Navajo diet.

Adult↗
PubMed1984

Descriptive epidemiology of cancer of the uterine cervix.

Substantial decreases in both incidence of and mortality from cancer of the uterine cervix have occurred during the past 30 years. Decreases are apparent among both whites and nonwhites, although rates among black women remain considerably higher than those among white women. In spite of geographic differences in rates, decreases have been observed in all areas of the United States for which data are available. The decline in mortality and in invasive cancer incidence has been occurring within virtually all age groups. Diagnosed infrequently in the past, carcinoma in situ now has an incidence rate two to three times higher than that of invasive cancer and also has a much younger age distribution. Carcinoma of the cervix occurs much more frequently among women of lower income and education level; this accounts for much of the observed racial difference in incidence.

Adolescent↗