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At least 991 records · Page 55Linked to original sources
PubMed1984

Bombesin/gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP)- and Met5-enkephalin-Arg6-Gly7-Leu8-like immunoreactivities in small intensely fluorescent (SIF) cells and nerve fibers of rat sympathetic ganglia.

Superior cervical and hypogastric ganglia were removed from rats that had been perfused with a mixture of 4% paraformaldehyde and 0.25% glutaraldehyde. Specific antisera against Met5-enkephalin-Arg6-Gly7-Leu8 (MEAGL) and bombesin/gastrin-releasing peptide (BN/GRP) were used in the immunofluorescence procedure. In hypogastric ganglia, a subpopulation of small intensely fluorescent (SIF) cells, as identified by their aqueous aldehyde (Faglu)-induced fluorescence, showed MEAGL- and BN/GRP-like immunolabeling. SIF cells in the superior cervical ganglia were unlabeled. In both ganglia, varicose nerve fiber networks and nerve terminals surrounding principal ganglion cells showed MEAGL- and BN/GRP-like immunoreactivities. Unlabeled SIF cells often were in close contact with nerve fibers that had MEAGL-like immunolabeling. Immunoreactivities against MEAGL- and BN/GRP-like neuropeptides in nerve fibers and terminals suggest a neurotransmitter or neuromodulator role for these peptides. In addition, labeling in SIF cells implies their possible endocrine function.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Comparison of P2X and TRPV1 receptors in ganglia or primary culture of trigeminal neurons and their modulation by NGF or serotonin.

BACKGROUND: Cultured sensory neurons are a common experimental model to elucidate the molecular mechanisms of pain transduction typically involving activation of ATP-sensitive P2X or capsaicin-sensitive TRPV1 receptors. This applies also to trigeminal ganglion neurons that convey pain inputs from head tissues. Little is, however, known about the plasticity of these receptors on trigeminal neurons in culture, grown without adding the neurotrophin NGF which per se is a powerful algogen. The characteristics of such receptors after short-term culture were compared with those of ganglia. Furthermore, their modulation by chronically-applied serotonin or NGF was investigated. RESULTS: Rat or mouse neurons in culture mainly belonged to small and medium diameter neurons as observed in sections of trigeminal ganglia. Real time RT-PCR, Western blot analysis and immunocytochemistry showed upregulation of P2X(3) and TRPV1 receptors after 1-4 days in culture (together with their more frequent co-localization), while P2X(2) ones were unchanged. TRPV1 immunoreactivity was, however, lower in mouse ganglia and cultures. Intracellular Ca(2+) imaging and whole-cell patch clamping showed functional P2X and TRPV1 receptors. Neurons exhibited a range of responses to the P2X agonist alpha, beta-methylene-adenosine-5'-triphosphate indicating the presence of homomeric P2X(3) receptors (selectively antagonized by A-317491) and heteromeric P2X(2/3) receptors. The latter were observed in 16 % mouse neurons only. Despite upregulation of receptors in culture, neurons retained the potential for further enhancement of P2X(3) receptors by 24 h NGF treatment. At this time point TRPV1 receptors had lost the facilitation observed after acute NGF application. Conversely, chronically-applied serotonin selectively upregulated TRPV1 receptors rather than P2X(3) receptors. CONCLUSION: Comparing ganglia and cultures offered the advantage of understanding early adaptive changes of nociception-transducing receptors of trigeminal neurons. Culturing did not prevent differential receptor upregulation by algogenic substances like NGF or serotonin, indicating that chronic application led to distinct plastic changes in the molecular mechanisms mediating pain on trigeminal nociceptors.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

Reduced basal ganglia volume in HIV-1-associated dementia: results from quantitative neuroimaging.

Although brain atrophy is a common neuroradiologic and pathologic finding in patients with HIV-1 infection, especially those with HIV-1-associated dementia complex, it is not clear whether specific regions of the brain are differentially responsible for tissue loss. In this study, we measured volumes of basal ganglia structures on MRIs for three groups: HIV-1-infected homosexual men with HIV-1-associated dementia complex (HIV+ demented), HIV-1-infected homosexual men without HIV dementia (HIV+ nondemented), and noninfected homosexual men. All groups were comparable on age and years of education, and the HIV+ groups were comparable on level of immunosuppression. Total brain volume was smaller in the HIV+ nondemented patients in comparison with HIV- control subjects; the HIV+ demented patients demonstrated even smaller brain volumes than the HIV+ nondemented patients. Smaller basal ganglia volumes, after corrections for intracranial volume, distinguished HIV+ demented patients from the other two groups; there were no differences between the HIV+ nondemented and HIV- groups on basal ganglia volumes. This study suggests that HIV infection causes generalized brain atrophy, but that the clinical features of HIV dementia develop with selective basal ganglia atrophy, consistent with the characterization of HIV dementia as subcortical.

AIDS Dementia Complex↗
PubMed1993

Reduced basal ganglia volumes in Tourette's syndrome using three-dimensional reconstruction techniques from magnetic resonance images.

Using a 1.5-tesla GE Signa MR scanner, we imaged the brains of 14 right-handed Tourette's syndrome (TS) patients (11 men, three women), aged 18 to 49 years, who had minimal lifetime neuroleptic exposure. We also studied an equal number of normal controls individually matched for age, sex, and handedness and group-matched for socioeconomic status. We circumscribed basal ganglia on sequential axial images from spin-echo proton density-weighted acquisitions (TR 1,700, TE 20; slice thickness, 3 mm with 1.5-mm skip) and submitted the images for three-dimensional processing at a computer graphics workstation. Our hypothesis of lenticular nucleus volume reduction in TS was confirmed for the left- but not the right-sided nucleus. Post hoc analyses revealed smaller mean volumes of the caudate, lenticular, and globus pallidus nuclei compared with controls on both the right and left. Further analyses of basal ganglia asymmetry indices suggest that TS basal ganglia do not have the volumetric asymmetry (left greater than right) seen in normal controls. These findings confirm and extend prior phenomenologic, neuropathologic, and neuroradiologic studies that implicate the basal ganglia in the pathogenesis of TS.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Anti-basal ganglia antibodies in acute and persistent Sydenham's chorea.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the sensitivity and specificity of methods to detect anti-basal ganglia antibodies (ABGA) in Sydenham's chorea (SC). BACKGROUND: SC is a delayed manifestation of group Abeta hemolytic streptococcal infection typically associated with rheumatic fever (RHF). SC is characterized by chorea and motor and neuropsychiatric symptoms. Patients with SC produce antibodies that cross-react with streptococcal, caudate, and subthalamic nuclei antigens detected using an immunofluorescent (IF) method with inconsistent reports of positivity. METHODS: The authors developed ELISA and Western immunoblotting (WB) methods to detect ABGA and compared these assays to IF. They investigated samples from patients with acute SC (n = 20), persistent SC (n = 16), control samples from RHF (n = 16), and healthy pediatric volunteers (n = 11). RESULTS: ABGA ELISA had a sensitivity of 95% and specificity of 93% in acute SC. Both WB and IF had a sensitivity of 100% and specificity of 93%. In the persistent SC group, ABGA sensitivity dropped to 69% using WB and to 63% using IF. Three common basal ganglia antigens were identified by WB in both acute and persistent SC (40 kDa [n = 15], 45 kDa [n = 15], and 60 kDa [n = 13]). There was no antibody reactivity to cerebellum, cerebral cortex, or myelin antigen preparations in any group. CONCLUSIONS: These results support the hypothesis that Syndenham's chorea is an autoantibody-mediated disorder. Western immunoblotting and immunofluorescence are the best methods for detecting anti-basal ganglia antibodies, and reactivity to basal ganglia antigens of 40, 45, and 60 kDa were commonly seen in both acute and persistent cases of SC.

Acute Disease↗
PubMed1987

T2 and T3 sympathetic ganglia in the adult human: a cadaver and clinical-radiographic study and its clinical application.

The technique of percutaneous radiofrequency (RF) upper thoracic sympathectomy mandates an exact knowledge of the anatomical location of the sympathetic ganglia. Because conflicting descriptions are given in anatomy texts, we examined the T2 and T3 sympathetic ganglia in 48 sympathetic chains in adult cadavers to measure the exact location of the ganglia. Measurements were made relative to their distances (a) dorsal to the ventral surface of the vertebral body and (b) rostral or caudal to the midpoint of the vertebral body. Median locations of T2 and T3 ganglia were 17 to 20 mm dorsal to the ventral surface of the vertebral body and 2 mm rostral to the T1-T2 and T2-T3 vertebral bodies. The sympathetic chains lay lateral to and between the heads of the ribs at these levels. A clinical-radiographic correlation study of the sympatholytic effectiveness of various needle electrode placement sites during sympathectomy confirmed these findings. These data have been used to modify the technique of percutaneous RF sympathectomy.

Female↗
PubMed1990

Expression of nerve growth factor receptor mRNA during early development of the chicken embryo: emphasis on cranial ganglia.

In situ hybridization with beta-nerve growth factor receptor (NGF-R) oligonucleotide probes was used to study NGF-R mRNA expression in early chicken embryos. Sections through the region of the visceral arches showed high levels of NGF-R mRNA in mesenchyme of the visceral arches, neural tube and myotomes. Labelling was also seen over E3 primordium of the trigeminal ganglion (V) and in the placodal thickening of the petrosal (IX) and nodose (X) ganglionic primordia. In the E5 embryo, all cranial sensory ganglia (V, VII, VIII, IX, X) expressed NGF-R mRNA although at varying levels with higher levels in the ganglia of the Vth, IXth and Xth cranial nerves than in ganglia of the VIIth and the VIIIth nerves. Within ganglia of the Vth, IXth and Xth cranial nerves, levels of NGF-R mRNA were higher in regions containing placode-derived neurons, than in regions with neural-crest-derived neurons. The placode-derived nodose ganglion (X) expressed NGF-R mRNA at all stages of development. In the E15 embryo and later in development, two thirds of the large neuron-like cells expressed high levels of NGF-R mRNA. Our results show that expression of NGF-R mRNA, in peripheral neurons, is not restricted to cells of neural crest origin. We also show a transient expression of NGF-R mRNA early in development in a wide range of non-neuronal differentiating cells. The high level of NGF-R mRNA in early differentiating tissues suggest that the NGF-R plays a wider role during development than previously anticipated.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Veins of the lumbar spinal ganglia in human adults and fetuses.

To obtain a fundamental knowledge of the morphological relationship between nerve root symptoms and circulatory disorders, the distribution pattern of the veins in the lumbar spinal ganglia from the first to fifth vertebrae was investigated in 5 adult human cadavers (mean age 69.6 years) and 5 human fetuses (mean age 6.6 months). The following results were obtained: 1) In the adults the veins perforating from the outer surface of the fifth lumbar spinal ganglion were smaller in number than those perforating from the first to fourth ganglia. In contrast, in the fetuses the number of such veins was increased in the lower lumbar spinal ganglia. In each of the ganglia, the number of veins emerging through the dorsal side was much higher than the number perforating from the outer surface of the ventral sides. The veins perforating through the outer surface of the ganglion formed weak venous networks (periganglionic venous plexus) surrounding the dorsal ramus of the spinal nerve. 2) The veins communicating with the tributaries from the periganglionic venous plexus were classified into three types. Type 1 veins flowed into the intervertebral veins (the frequency ranged from 9.2 to 18.2 in the adults and from 22.4 to 37.0 in the fetuses). Type 2 veins coursed in the spinal cord along the dorsal root fibers and penetrated the dura mater on the way (the frequency ranged from 0.4 to 4.8 in the adults and from 1.2 to 2.2 in the fetuses). Type 3 veins opened directly into the internal vertebral plexus (the frequency ranged from 0.4 to 1.8 in the adults and from 0 to 0.4 in the fetuses). Type 1 veins were the most frequent among the three types of veins in both adults and fetuses. Few type 3 veins were observed in either group. 3) In the first and second lumbar vertebrae in the adults, three-quarters of each spinal ganglion was situated in the vertebral canal. In the lower lumbar region (L3-L5), three quarters of each spinal ganglion lay on the outside of the vertebral canal. In the fetuses, approximately one half to three-quarters of each lumbar spinal ganglion was located in the vertebral canal.

Aged↗
PubMed2006

Variations in the human pain stress experience mediated by ventral and dorsal basal ganglia dopamine activity.

In addition to its involvement in motor control and in encoding reward value, increasing evidence also implicates basal ganglia dopaminergic mechanisms in responses to stress and aversive stimuli. Basal ganglia dopamine (DA) neurotransmission may then respond to environmental events depending on their saliency, orienting the subsequent responses of the organism to both positive and negative stimuli. Here we examined the involvement of DA neurotransmission in the human response to pain, a robust physical and emotional stressor across species. Positron emission tomography with the DA D2 receptor antagonist radiotracer [11C]raclopride detected significant activation of DA release in dorsal and ventral regions of the basal ganglia of healthy volunteers. Activation of nigrostriatal (dorsal nucleus caudate and putamen) DA D2 receptor-mediated neurotransmission was positively associated with individual variations in subjective ratings of sensory and affective qualities of the pain. In contrast, mesolimbic (nucleus accumbens) DA activation, which may impact on both D2 and D3 receptors, was exclusively associated with variations in the emotional responses of the individual during the pain challenge (increases in negative affect and fear ratings). These data demonstrate that basal ganglia dopamine D2 receptor-mediated neurotransmission is involved in responses to pain and that it contributes to individual variations in the pain experience at the levels of physical and emotional elements, albeit with different neuroanatomical substrates.

Adult↗
PubMed1986

Neuropeptide Y and somatostatin immunoreactive perikarya in preaortic ganglia projecting to the rat ovary.

Postganglionic perikarya in preaortic ganglia projecting to the ovary of the rat were identified utilizing the retrograde fluorescent tracer, true blue. Ovarian perikarya were subsequently examined for neuropeptide Y and somatostatin immunoreactivity. True blue-labelled ovarian postganglionic perikarya were distributed in the coeliac ganglion and in smaller ganglia located at the origins of the renal and ovarian arteries. In the coeliac ganglia, 74.4 +/- 18.8% of true blue-labelled ovarian perikarya were immunoreactive to neuropeptide Y while 37.4 +/- 9.6% were immunoreactive to somatostatin. In the inferior smaller ganglia, 72.2 +/- 18.7% and 2.2 +/- 2.2% of the true blue-labelled ovarian perikarya were immunoreactive to neuropeptide Y and somatostatin respectively. It is suggested that neuropeptide Y and somatostatin participate in the modulation of ovarian function.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Serotonin involvement in the basal ganglia pathophysiology: could the 5-HT2C receptor be a new target for therapeutic strategies?

The basal ganglia are a highly interconnected group of subcortical nuclei in the vertebrate brain that play a critical role not only in the control of movements but also in some cognitive and behavioral functions. Several recent studies have emphasized that serotonergic pathways in the central nervous system (CNS) are intimately involved in the modulation of the basal ganglia and in the pathophysiology of human involuntary movement disorders. These observations are supported by anatomical evidence demonstrating large serotonergic innervation of the basal ganglia. In fact, serotonergic terminals have been reported to make synaptic contacts with dopamine (DA)-containing neurons and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-containing neurons in the striatum, globus pallidus, subthalamus and substantia nigra. These brain areas contain the highest concentration of serotonin (5-HT), with the substantia nigra pars reticulata receiving the greatest input. Furthermore, in these structures a high expression of 5-HT different receptor subtypes has been revealed. In this paper, evidence demonstrating the serotonergic control of basal ganglia functions will be reviewed, focusing on the role of the 5-HT2C receptor subtype. In addition, the involvement of 5-HT2C receptors in neurological disorders such as Parkinson's disease and other related motor disorders, and their management with drugs blocking the 5-HT2C receptor will be discussed.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Impaired molecular regenerative responses in sensory neurones of diabetic rats: gene expression changes in dorsal root ganglia after sciatic nerve crush.

This study investigated changes in gene expression in lumbar dorsal root ganglia (DRG), contralateral and ipsilateral to a sciatic nerve crush in control and streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats. After 10 weeks of diabetes, the left sciatic nerves of all rats were crushed at mid-thigh level, and the rats were maintained for a further 2 weeks. Northern blots, with internal standards, were made from L4 and L5 (pooled) DRG on each side to compare RNA hybrids from ganglia attached to crushed nerves with those attached to intact nerves. The expression of growth-associated proteins, GAP-43 and Talpha1 alpha-tubulin mRNA in DRG, was stimulated (all P < 0.05) by crush injury in control and diabetic rats. Steady-state expression of transcripts for neurofilament (NF) proteins (NF-L, NF-H) and the high-affinity NGF receptor, trkA was decreased by diabetes in the contralateral ganglia to the crush (all P < 0.05). Crush injury further decreased expression of these transcripts in both control and diabetic rats (all P < 0.05). This reduced expression of mRNA coding for both growth-associated proteins, and neurofilament proteins in ganglia of diabetic rats could participate in the reduced competence of the regenerative response to nerve crush.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Deep arteriovenous malformations of the basal ganglia and thalamus: natural history.

OBJECT: Patients with arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) in a deep location and with deep venous drainage are thought to be at higher risk for hemorrhage than those with AVMs in other locations. Despite this, the natural history of AVMs of the basal ganglia and thalamus has not been well studied. METHODS: The authors retrospectively evaluated a cohort of 96 patients with AVMs in the basal ganglia and thalamus with respect to the tendency of these lesions to hemorrhage between the time of detection and their eventual successful management. The 96 patients studied had a mean age of 22.7 years at diagnosis, and 51% were male. Intracranial hemorrhage (ICH) was the event leading to clinical detection in 69 patients (71.9%), and 85.5% of these patients were left with hemiparesis. After diagnosis, 25 patients bled a total of 49 times. The cumulative clinical follow up after detection but before surgical management was 500.2 patient-years. The risk of hemorrhage after detection of an AVM of the basal ganglia or thalamus was 9.8% per patient-year. CONCLUSIONS: The rate of ICH in patients with AVMs of the basal ganglia or thalamus (9.8%/year) is much higher than the rate in patients with AVMs in other locations (2-4%/year). The risk of incurring a neurological deficit with each hemorrhagic event is high. Treatment of these patients at specialized centers is recommended to prevent neurological injury from a spontaneous ICH.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Interactions between frontal cortex and basal ganglia in working memory: a computational model.

The frontal cortex and the basal ganglia interact via a relatively well understood and elaborate system of interconnections. In the context of motor function, these interconnections can be understood as disinhibiting, or "releasing the brakes," on frontal motor action plans: The basal ganglia detect appropriate contexts for performing motor actions and enable the frontal cortex to execute such actions at the appropriate time. We build on this idea in the domain of working memory through the use of computational neural network models of this circuit. In our model, the frontal cortex exhibits robust active maintenance, whereas the basal ganglia contribute a selective, dynamic gating function that enables frontal memory representations to be rapidly updated in a task-relevant manner. We apply the model to a novel version of the continuous performance task that requires subroutine-like selective working memory updating and compare and contrast our model with other existing models and theories of frontal-cortex-basal-ganglia interactions.

Basal Ganglia↗
PubMed1999

[Functional imaging for disorders of basal ganglia].

The nigrostriatal dopaminergic function and regional glucose metabolism were evaluated in patients suffering from various disorders of basal ganglia by using positron emission tomography with 18F-dopa and 18F-FDG, respectively. The 18F-dopa uptake in the striatum (the caudate head and the putamen) decreased in patients with Parkinson's disease but was relatively unaffected in the caudate. The cerebral glucose metabolism was normal in patients with Parkinson's disease. The 18F-dopa uptake in the striatum also decreased in cases of multiple system atrophy and progressive supranuclear palsy, but there was no difference in the uptake between the caudate and the putamen. The glucose metabolism decreased in the cerebral cortices and the striatum: this finding was also different from those of Parkinson's disease. A normal 18F-dopa uptake with a markedly decreased striatal glucose metabolism was observed in cases of Huntington's disease. The 18F-dopa uptake increased and the glucose metabolism was normal in cases of idiopathic dystonia. Various patterns of 18F-dopa uptake and glucose metabolism were thus observed in the various disorders of basal ganglia. These results suggest that the measurements of the 18F-dopa uptake and glucose metabolism would be useful for evaluating the function of the basal ganglia in various disorders of basal ganglia.

Basal Ganglia↗
PubMed1975

Morphology of the basal ganglia in Parkinson's disease.

This work consists in part of volume measurements for the caudate nucleus, putamen and pallidum; and in part of a determination of cell-distribution and cell density in the corpus striatum from 9 paralysis agitans patients and 15 control persons from the Institute of Forensic Medicine. All 24 brains were sectioned on a specially constructed apparatus. For each of the individual sections, the size of the basal ganglia was determined by measurements of the section thickness with a capillary tube and area measurements were made by microscopic projection method combined with planimetric methods. For the first six control brains, the area measurements were also taken using point-counting method. The values thus obtained were used in the basic formula for a truncated cone and the volume of the basal ganglia for the individual hemispheres was calculated. The only exception was a single hemisphere where the volume of the basal ganglia was determined after dissecting out and weighing these structures. The results showed that the volume measurements of the corpus striatum and the pallidum in these two groups of brains were quite similar, when differences due to body height, age, and brain weight were taken into account. The volume of the basal ganglia decreased with age in both groups of brains and increased with brain weight. The shrinkage of the tissue as a consequence of the histological procedures was also determined. The shrinkage from fresh to formalin-fixed condition was determined by comparing the distance between the same two marked points in the fresh and formalin-fixed tissue. The shrinkage from the formalin-fixed condition to the completed histological preparation was determined by comparing the distance between known structural characteristics, as measured on photographs showing the formalin-fixed sections, lying beside a millimeter scale, with the same distance on the histologically treated preparations. The accumulated shrinkage in volume was 47.3%.

Adult↗
PubMed1979

Retrograde alteration of 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase in axotomized superior cervical ganglia of the rat.

Mechanisms underlying increased activity of 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6-phospho-D-gluconate: NADP oxidoreductase [decarboxylating] EC 1.1.1.44) in axotomized rat superior cervical ganglia were explored using a highly sensitive micro-immunochemical assay employing antibodies raised in rabbits against the purified enzyme. 6-Phosphogluconate dehydrogenase was purified from rat brain more than 1700-fold by salt fractionation, anion exchange, and immunoaffinity chromatography. The purified enzyme consisted of identical subunits having molecular weights of about 48,800 which could aggregate to catalytically active isomers of various sizes; however, only one form of the enzyme was detected in freshly prepared homogenates of rat neural tissue. Physical and immunological properties of the enzyme from rat brain were similar to those from superior cervical ganglia and liver. Augmented 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase activity noted in superior cervical ganglia 2 days after transection of major postganglionic nerve trunks was accompanied by a parallel increase in immunoreactive protein. Michaelis constants of the enzyme were the same in control and axotomized ganglia, and the presence of activators and inhibitors was not detected. It is concluded that increases in 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase subsequent to axotomy can be accounted for entirely by an increase in the steady state concentration of this protein.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Anatomical characteristics of tonic and phasic postganglionic neurons in guinea pig bronchial parasympathetic ganglia.

Anatomical characteristics of principal parasympathetic ganglia neurons on the guinea pig primary bronchus were analyzed, and the procedure for localizing the ganglia without the aid of staining for in vitro physiological studies is described. The neurons were tightly packed within a perineural sheath, and the cell bodies formed a homogeneous population based on size and shape. By using intracellular electrophysiological recordings, unstained neurons within these ganglia were characterized with suprathreshold depolarizing stimuli as having either accommodating action potential patterns (phasic neurons) or repetitive action potential patterns (tonic neurons). After determining whether a cell was tonic or phasic, it was injected with either horseradish peroxidase or Neurobiotin for characterization of its dendrites. There were no differences between tonic and phasic neurons, and both exhibited the following: (1) dendrites were multiple and branching; (2) all processes (axon and dendrites) arose from a circumscribed area on the somatic surface; (3) the initial direction of the processes was usually toward the center of the ganglion, creating a very dense intraganglionic neuropil; (4) tapering processes (presumed dendrites) extended beyond the border of the perineural sheath; and (5) many processes terminated with bouton-like swellings near the somatic surfaces of neighboring neurons within the same ganglion. Electron microscopic examination of dendritic and cell body membranes revealed that greater than 90% of the synapses occurred on dendrites. Based on immunohistochemical staining, all neurons were calbindin negative. These results indicate a relatively homogeneous population of neurons in bronchial parasympathetic ganglia displaying dendritic characteristics compatible with complex integrative properties.

Action Potentials↗