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PubMed2000

Motivation gains in performance groups: paradigmatic and theoretical developments on the Köhler effect.

In contrast to many demonstrations of social loafing, relatively few studies have documented group motivation gains. One such exception was O. Köhler's (1926, 1927) finding that team members working together did better at a taxing persistence task than would be expected from their individual performances, particularly when there was a moderate discrepancy in coworkers' capabilities. In Experiment 1, we developed a paradigm within which Köhler's overall motivation gain effect could be replicated, although the discrepancy in coworkers' capabilities did not moderate these motivation gains (after statistical artifacts were taken into account). Experiment 2 indicated that this motivation gain occurred under conjunctive but not under additive task demands, suggesting that the instrumentality of one's contribution to valued outcomes is a more likely explanation of the Köhler effect than social comparison processes.

Cooperative Behavior↗
PubMed2001

Money and subjective well-being: it's not the money, it's the motives.

Past researchers have argued that the relative importance a person attaches to money is negatively related to subjective well-being (SWB). However, the past research suffers from the theoretical problem of not including the diferent motives for making money. With a sample of 240 business students, the authors developed a set of scales to measure motives for making money. They used a sample of 492 business students to confirm the factor structure of these motives. With another sample of 266 business students, the authors found that the negative relationship between money importance and SWB was due to the two variables being the result of a common cause; namely, the motives of social comparison. seeking power, showing off, and overcoming self-doubt. This finding was replicated with a sample of 145 entrepreneurs.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Smoking in urban African Americans: behaviors, gender differences, and motivation to quit.

OBJECTIVE: This study describes smoking behaviors and gender differences, and correlates these factors with motivation to quit smoking among African-American smokers at a community-based health center. DESIGN: A 62-item survey assessed depression, hassles, readiness to change, and demographics. METHODS: Participants (N = 81) were interviewed in an adult clinic waiting room. RESULTS: On average, participants smoked 13 cigarettes per day. Many reported attempts to reduce smoking-related health risks: 46% switched brands, 57% reduced their smoking, and 19% smoked only on some days. Fifty-nine percent indicated depressive symptoms. For women vs men, noteworthy differences were: reduction in number of cigarettes smoked (66.7% vs 40.0%; P = .023), switching brands (58.8% vs 23.3%; P = .003), number of attempts to quit in the past year (2.7 vs 1.2; P = .034), and high concern about weight gain (52.9% vs 26.7%; P = .047). Cigarettes smoked per day was negatively correlated with motivation to quit (P = .022). Variables positively correlated with motivation to quit included: harm reduction strategies (P = .002), intention to quit in 30 days (P<.0001), and intention to quit in 6 months (P<.0001). CONCLUSIONS: Women showed more potential indications of readiness to quit, including more attempts to quit, reductions in number of cigarette smoked, and brand switching. Knowledge of cessation barriers, gender differences, and correlates to motivation may prove useful for investigators conducting research in this population.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

The motivational basis of concessions and compromise: archival and laboratory studies.

A content analysis system for measuring positive concessions (offering concessions) and negative concessions (rejecting offered concessions) was introduced and validated through an archival study of government-to-government documents from 4 crises, 2 of which escalated to war and 2 of which were peacefully resolved. In the archival documents, concession making was positively associated with affiliation motivation and negatively associated with power motivation. A 2nd, laboratory experimental study confirmed these relationships and demonstrated priming effects of motive imagery and concession making, in a received diplomatic letter, on participants' responses. Finally, the motive imagery and concessions scores in participants' responses were related in predicted ways to their policy choices.

Archives↗
PubMed2002

Coding and monitoring of motivational context in the primate prefrontal cortex.

The prefrontal cortex is involved in acquiring and maintaining information about context, including the set of task instructions and/or the outcome of previous stimulus-response sequences. Most studies on context-dependent processing in the prefrontal cortex have been concerned with such executive functions, but the prefrontal cortex is also involved in motivational operations. We thus wished to determine whether primate prefrontal neurons show evidence of representing the motivational context learned by the monkey. We trained monkeys in a delayed reaction task in which an instruction cue indicated the presence or absence of reward. In random alternation with no reward, the same one of several different kinds of food and liquid rewards was delivered repeatedly in a block of approximately 50 trials, so that reward information would define the motivational context. In response to an instruction cue indicating absence of reward, we found that neurons in the lateral prefrontal cortex not only predicted the absence of reward but also represented more specifically which kind of reward would be omitted in a given trial. These neurons seem to code contextual information concerning which kind of reward may be delivered in following trials. We also found prefrontal neurons that showed tonic baseline activity that may be related to monitoring such motivational context. The different types of neurons were distributed differently along the dorsoventral extent of the lateral prefrontal cortex. Such operations in the prefrontal cortex may be important for the monkey to maximize reward or to modify behavioral strategies and thus may contribute to executive control.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

What motivates lay volunteers in high burden but resource-limited tuberculosis control programmes? Perceptions from the Northern Cape province, South Africa.

SETTING: The Northern Cape province, Republic of South Africa. OBJECTIVES: To explore factors that motivate lay volunteers to join tuberculosis (TB) control programmes in high burden but resource-limited settings. DESIGN: A qualitative study consisting of three focus group discussions and a documentary review of the records of 347 lay volunteers involved in the tuberculosis programme in the Northern Cape province of South Africa. Additional data were also collected in a cross-sectional study that involved questionnaire interviews with 135 lay volunteers. SUBJECTS: Lay volunteers in the TB programme. One focus group discussion was also carried out with youth not involved in the TB programme. RESULTS: Volunteers do not receive any monetary incentives in the TB programme in the Northern Cape province, but due to the high level of unemployment in this setting, hope for eventual remuneration was found to be the strongest factor motivating youth to join the programme. The study found attrition rates among volunteers to be high (22% had dropped out of the programme within one year of joining); 75% of the dropouts gave loss of interest and a desire for paid work as the reasons for leaving the TB programme. Other motivating factors identified included altruism, a need to find something to do with one's spare time, gaining work experience, and the novelty of the community-based TB programme. CONCLUSION: In the absence of monetary incentives, attrition rates of lay volunteers may be high and this can threaten the effectiveness of community-based TB programmes. In resource-limited settings, it is important to identify and implement appropriate alternative incentives that could motivate lay persons in order to sustain community participation in high TB burden areas.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1992

Motivation and fertility control behaviour in Pakistan.

Using data from the Population, Labor Force, and Migration (PLM) Survey of 1979-80, this paper examines the component of potential motivation for fertility limitation among Pakistani married women and then determines what factor are important in explaining the contraceptive use differentials among the potentially motivated subgroup of women. The analysis is conducted using logit regression models. The findings show that, among women wanting no additional children, a substantial proportion is reluctant to adopt fertility control behavior, confirming the existence of latent demand for contraception in all strata. A majority of those women report no exposure to the program or no contact with a family planning worker, and a large majority of those who have had exposure or have been contacted do not report contraceptive use, indicating a considerable shortfall of the program. Among the urban women wanting no more children, the important factors affecting contracepting use positively are education (both primary and secondary), household income, living in a nuclear family, exposure to the program, and contact with a family planning worker, for rural women, only nuclear family living and the program factors are significant in promoting contraceptive use. The suggestions likely to increase contraceptive prevalence are, first, to reach those women who have the potential motivation for contraception, and, second, to increase the quality and sources of the motivation efforts of the program to crystallize the latent demand among those who need it.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2002

Motivation by positive or negative role models: regulatory focus determines who will best inspire us.

In 3 studies, the authors demonstrated that individuals are motivated by role models who encourage strategies that fit their regulatory concerns: Promotion-focused individuals, who favor a strategy of pursuing desirable outcomes, are most inspired by positive role models, who highlight strategies for achieving success; prevention-focused individuals, who favor a strategy of avoiding undesirable outcomes, are most motivated by negative role models, who highlight strategies for avoiding failure. In Studies 1 and 2, the authors primed promotion and prevention goals and then examined the impact of role models on motivation. Participants' academic motivation was increased by goal-congruent role models but decreased by goal-incongruent role models. In Study 3, participants were more likely to generate real-life role models that matched their chronic goals.

Achievement↗
PubMed2002

[Treatment motivation, treatment satisfaction and quality of life from the viewpoint of parents at a child psychiatry facility--contribution to quality assurance].

This study tried to figure out if parents initial treatment motivation influenced their final assessment of the treatment process and its outcome in child psychiatry. We evaluated parents therapy motivation by developing a questionnaire based on solution focussed therapy's conception of motivation of clients (Berg 1992). The change during the treatment in parents satisfaction with their life situations and their experience of pressure ("life quality")--independent from their pronounced assessment of the quality of therapy--was taken as one indication of treatment quality. In addition to this parents' assessment of treatment was investigated by a questionnaire for therapy evaluation which included process and outcome quality factors. There could be shown that significant relations existed. Therefore we are convinced that the discussion of quality assurance in child psychiatry should be enlarged with a methodical conception of therapy motivation and the assessment of life quality of parents in addition to the evaluation of their specific therapy satisfaction.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Helping people change, Part 2: The magic of motivation.

The consensus of the data and the interviewed doctors was that the five most profound motivators of people in the workplace today include the following: achievement of well-done work; personal pride and satisfaction in being a part of quality treatment and excellent care of patients; continuing education; respect, responsibility, and appreciation; and equitable compensation. "Motivation is the most critical factor in the productivity of my practice," said Dr. Stelly. "Motivation is the key. If everyone is on the same page and the doctor and key team members can continue to motivate and encourage others, then the sky is the limit. The key is to keep everyone goal oriented, unified, and excited about the possibilities."

Achievement↗
PubMed1992

Job orientation and motivation of cytotechnologists.

Little is known about what motivates cytotechnologists as a distinct group. The Job Attitude Survey (JAS), developed by Shoukry Saleh, was applied to a cohort of 261 cytotechnologists. The group was divided between nondegreed cytotechnologists (CTs) (n = 97) and bachelor's degreed cytotechnologists (BSCTs) (n = 164) to see if there were noticeable motivational differences between the two. No statistical difference was found between the two groups. Compared to other groups of professionals who had previously taken the JAS, cytotechnologists ranked responsibility as a very low factor, demonstrating that it does not function as a motivator. In contrast, salary was ranked very high by cytotechnologists, suggesting it functions as a large dissatisfier. Based upon these findings, educational attainment changes the cytotechnologists' attitude very little. The findings are also consistent with the views that JAS-type surveys are important and that both motivators and dissatisfiers should be addressed in order to improve retention of cytotechnologists.

Allied Health Personnel↗
PubMed2003

Toward a hierarchical goal theory model of school motivation.

Instead of concentrating on mastery and performance goal orientations, recent research on school motivation has suggested a multidimensional structure of achievement goal orientations. Students in Australian high schools (N =774) responded to 35 survey items on 10 goal orientation constructs (effort, task, sense of purpose, praise, competition, power, token, social concern, social dependence, and affiliation) and 14 items on general mastery, general performance, general social, and global motivation constructs. Confirmatory factor analysis results supported a hierarchical, multidimensional school motivation construct. The hierarchical, multidimensional model has provided a strong theoretical structure for further school motivation research.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Motivation: a new look at an age-old topic.

Employee motivation is a shared responsibility. An employee has to have some amount of intrinsic desire to perform a task. You can't create that desire. But, you can create an environment that brings out that desire, and allows an employee to shine. Abraham Maslow developed one of the most useful of all motivation theories--the "Hierarchy of Needs"--in the 1940s, and it is still the prevailing theory today. The Needs Hierarchy begins with the basic idea that only an unfulfilled need is a motivator. Or, in plain English, people perform specific actions to meet specific personal needs. Maslow defines five levels of needs that all people experience: 1: Physiological, Food, shelter, and yes, sex. 2: Safety/Security. No personal harm and the current lifestyle is safe. 3: Social. The need for acceptance by others, for belonging, friendship and affection. 4: Self-Esteem/Ego. Recognition, status and prestige. 5: Self-Actualization. Self-fulfillment and the need for achieving one's personal best. What makes this needs theory so interesting and so useful in the workplace is the clarity with which a position in the hierarchy can be determined. The basic premise is that lower-level needs must be satisfied before moving upward to the next level. Consider your own employees and what you know about them. Look at their situations, and evaluate where they may be in the hierarchy. Remember, it's difficult to separate their personal situations from their work personas. Try using Abraham Maslow as a starting point to identify motivations of your staff.

Humans↗
PubMed1992

[Achievement motivation in essential hypertension: an empirical study].

The influence of achievement-motivation on hypertonia was investigated by a psychometric questionnaire for achievement-motivation with four scales: achievement-motivation, steadiness and diligence, positive examination-anxiety and negative examination-anxiety. The sample of 53 persons was drawn by chance out of an unbiased set of hypertonic patients. Mean by age: 45 years; part of female: 28 subjects; part of male: 25 subjects; vocational school: 16 subjects; high-school: 20 subjects; academics: 20 subjects. The sample of the hypertonic patients was compared with a matched sample of normotonics, concerning sex, age, and education and also with the sample for the construction of the questionnaire. There were significant differences (p = .05) of the hypertonics in the scales achievement-motivation, steadiness and diligence, and positive examination-anxiety but no difference in negative examination-anxiety. The results were discussed with regard to neurophysiological activation theory.

Achievement↗
PubMed2004

Working overtime hours: relations with fatigue, work motivation, and the quality of work.

OBJECTIVES: We sought to better understand the relationship between overtime and mental fatigue by taking into account work motivation and the quality of overtime work and studying theoretically derived subgroups. METHODS: We conducted a survey-study among a representative sample of the Dutch full-time workforce (n = 1807). The prevalence of overtime work and the associations between overtime and job demands, job variety, decision latitude, fatigue, and work motivation was studied through descriptive statistics. We used MANCOVA (covariates: age, gender, salary level) to compare six overtime-fatigue subgroups with respect to work motivation and job characteristics. RESULTS: A total of 67% of the respondents worked overtime (mean, 3.5 hours). Overtime workers appeared to be nonfatigued, motivated workers with favorable work characteristics. MANCOVA revealed no significant overtime-fatigue interaction. CONCLUSIONS: Moderate overtime is common among Dutch workers, who seem to be happy workers with attractive jobs rather than fatigued employees.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

[The neuroanatomy of motivation in man].

To relate motivation, a psychological concept, to a neurobiological substrate requires that this concept should be translated in operations relevant at the biological level. The term of motivation includes mental elementary processes decoding the emotional value of a stimulus (endogenous or exogenous) and integrating it into the elaboration, control and execution of goal-directed behaviors in order to ensure the maintenance of homeostasis, the well-being and survival of the individual and the species. Thus, in experimental condition, responses to aversive or appetitive situations are the classical markers of motivation. Consequently, the cerebral network of motivation particularly relates to the limbic system, i.e., the amygdala, the orbital and ventromedial prefrontal cortex, the anterior cingulum and the ventral striatum. Within this network, it is possible to distinguish: on one part structures such as the orbital and ventromedial prefrontal cortex, which are essential for the highest level of adaptive responses, allowing the individual to decode the variations of the emotional contingencies in real time, to integrate them into the behavior, and to maintain a behavioral choice during a long course, regardless of endogenous or environmental constraints; on the other part structures like the amygdala allow to build stable and invariants behaviors, that can be automatically activated and are essential for survival and avoidance of noxious situations.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Relationship between perceived physical ability and sport participation motives in young competitive swimmers.

AIM: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between participation motives and perceived physical ability in young Spanish swimmers and to investigate whether swimmers with high or low perceived physical competence differ in their intrinsic and/or extrinsic reasons for participation involvement. METHODS: Four hundred and twenty-eight swimmers (204 boys and 224 girls), aged 8-22 years, responded to the Spanish versions of the Participation Motivation Inventory (PMI) and the Perceived Physical Ability Scale (PPA). Swimmers were divided into low (below the 33%), medium (between the 33-66%) and high (above the 66%) perceived ability groups. RESULTS: Multivariate analysis indicated the existence of differences in motives for participation between swimmers with different levels of perceived physical ability. Follow-up univariate analyses yielded significant (p<0.05) effects for 5 motivational factors: health/fitness, fun/friendship, competition/skills, affiliation and status. In all cases swimmers high in perceived physical ability rated significantly higher than those in the other categories. The PPA by gender, age or level of expertise interaction was not significant. CONCLUSIONS: Practitioners must consider the perceived ability of the competitors to better structure the social environment within which their swimmers operate.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1992

[Significance of the transference-countertransference constellation in motivation for participation in an epidemiologic field study of psychogenic disorders: a report of experiences].

The present article deals mainly with problems arising from the motivation of individuals for the participation in an epidemiological field study and their solutions on the basis of psychological-psychiatric findings. Subsequent to a more detailed survey of the research project in question formal and technical aspects of the motivational efforts (home visits, phone contacts) which had to be performed by the research group are mentioned. In the following the authors focus on the scientific concepts and orientations of their motivation work including the specific attention paid to the constellation of transference and countertransference. Particular importance is attributed to the presentation of several case studies which illustrate the influence of different psychoanalytical character traits on the motivational process. Finally the authors concentrate on specific problems regarding the sex of the probands as well as on their experiences with so-called hesitators i.e. individuals who for a longer period of time cannot decide whether to participate in the study or not.

Adult↗