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PubMed1992

Pushing the environmental regulatory focus a step back: controlling the introduction of new chemicals under the Toxic Substances Control Act.

Environmental destruction and its attendant effects on the animal world, including human beings, has moved to the forefront of United States and worldwide policy. The effect of this deterioration on human health is unclear. Much debate focuses on the cases of cancer, along with other diseases, that are environmentally induced. Congress has responded with various environmental laws. These laws focus primarily on controlling chemicals placed into the environment, largely by industry. This Note proposes that such a singular focus is inadequate and ultimately costly. A more sensible and efficient strategy to environmental protection places emphasis on controlling inputs to the productive process before the need arises to contain such substances. The Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976 ("TSCA") takes this approach. This Note reviews the means by which TSCA attempted to accomplish its goals and concludes that TSCA's implementation has largely been ineffective. The Note then discusses three possible explanations for TSCA's failure. Finally, the Note proposes how TSCA might be made more effective in regulating new chemicals.

Air Pollution↗
PubMed1991

Chemical selection by the Interagency Testing Committee: use of computerized substructure searching to identify chemical groups for health effects, chemical fate and ecological effects testing.

Since 1977, the Interagency Testing Committee has convened over 300 meetings, issued 27 semi-annual reports to the Administrator of the US Environmental Protection Agency, screened about 26,000 chemicals, reviewed about 4,500 chemicals and recommended between 5000 and 7600 health effects, chemical fate or ecological effects tests for 114 chemicals and 27 chemical groups. The Committee has used three chemical selection processes to screen and identify chemicals for priority testing consideration. From 1977 to 1980, the Committee's processes consisted of examining large lists of chemicals and designating chemical categories that satisfied generic definitions. From 1980 to 1989, the Committee used sequential exposure and biological scoring processes followed by in-depth review. Since 1989, the Committee has used computerized processes to identify chemical groups that are associated with potentials to cause adverse health or ecological effects or that are likely to involve occupational or environmental exposure and that have common substructures, uses, testing information deficiencies, risk assessment uncertainties, etc. This paper focuses on use of the computerized processes to identify chemical groups containing common substructures that are associated with potentials to cause adverse ecological effects. The purpose of this paper is to describe how: (i) chemical substructures are selected, (ii) substructures are used to identify chemical groups, (iii) groups are processed, and (iv) reliability of the processes that were used to select chemical substructures are being assessed.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Perspectives on the nature and definition of ecological regions.

Among environmental managers, recognition of the importance of integrating management activities across agencies and programs that have different responsibilities for the same geographic areas has created an awareness of the need for a common hierarchical framework of ecological regions (ecoregions) to implement the strategy. Responding to this need in the United States, nine federal agencies have signed a memorandum of understanding on the subject of developing a common framework of ecoregions. However, considerable disagreement over how to define ecoregions and confusion over the strengths and limitations of existing frameworks stand in the way of achieving this goal. This paper presents some perspectives on the nature and definition of ecoregions related to this confusion and provides a brief overview of the weight of evidence approach to mapping ecoregions, using an example initiated by the US Environmental Protection Agency. To effectively implement ecosystem assessment, management, and research at local, regional, and national levels, research is needed to increase our understanding of ecoregions. We must find ways to illustrate the nature of ecoregion boundaries and the variability of characteristics within ecoregions as they relate to management issues. Research must also be conducted on comparing existing frameworks and developing indices of ecological integrity to effectively evaluate their usefulness.

Conservation of Natural Resources↗
PubMed2006

Antepartum seafood consumption and mercury levels in newborn cord blood.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to determine the level of fetal mercury exposure by measuring mercury levels in newborn cord blood and to analyze the association with fish consumption during pregnancy. STUDY DESIGN: A total of 308 women who met the eligibility criteria were enrolled in the study. Of these, 275 women completed a dietary survey; after delivery, cord blood was collected and analyzed for mercury levels. RESULTS: The mean mercury level in cord blood was 4.82 microg/L; 28.3% of the participants had measured mercury levels above the US Environmental Protection Agency's recommended reference dose (5.8 microg/L). A significant relationship was noted between the amount of fish consumed during pregnancy and rising mercury levels in cord blood. CONCLUSION: In an island state with high levels of fish consumption, women were 3 times more likely to have elevated cord blood mercury levels, compared with the national average.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Development of a research strategy for integrated technology-based toxicological and chemical evaluation of complex mixtures of drinking water disinfection byproducts.

Chemical disinfection of water is a major public health triumph of the 20th century. Dramatic decreases in both morbidity and mortality of waterborne diseases are a direct result of water disinfection. With these important public health benefits comes low-level, chronic exposure to a very large number of disinfection byproducts (DBPs), chemicals formed through reaction of the chemical disinfectant with naturally occurring inorganic and organic material in the source water. This article provides an overview of joint research planning by scientists residing within the various organizations of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development. The purpose is to address concerns related to potential health effects from exposure to DBPs that cannot be addressed directly from toxicological studies of individual DBPs or simple DBP mixtures. Two factors motivate the need for such an investigation of complex mixtures of DBPs: a) a significant amount of the material that makes up the total organic halide and total organic carbon portions of the DBPs has not been identified; and b) epidemiologic data, although not conclusive, are suggestive of potential developmental, reproductive, or carcinogenic health effects in humans exposed to DBPs. The plan is being developed and the experiments necessary to determine the feasibility of its implementation are being conducted by scientists from the National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, the National Risk Management Research Laboratory, the National Exposure Research Laboratory, and the National Center for Environmental Assessment.

Chemistry Techniques, Analytical↗
PubMed2000

The removal of lead from gasoline: historical and personal reflections.

Tetraethyllead (TEL) was first fabricated for use in gasoline in 1923. Shortly after manufacture began, workers at all three plants began to become floridly psychotic and die. A moratorium on TEL production was put into place, but was lifted in 1926. Between 1926 and 1965, the prevailing consensus was that lead toxicity occurred only at high levels of exposure and that lead in the atmosphere was harmless. Most of the data on lead toxicity issued from a single source, the Kettering Laboratory in Cincinnati. In 1959, the first warnings of adverse health effects of lead at silent doses were raised by Clair Patterson, a geochemist. In hearings before the Senate Committee on Public Works, Senator Edward Muskie raised the question of adverse health effects from airborne lead. As new data accumulated on health effects of lead at lower doses, the movement to remove lead from gasoline gained momentum, and the Environmental Protection Agency examined the question. The removal of lead would take place over the next 25 years, and its accomplishment would require a severe change in the federal stance regarding its hazard. This article details the interaction of various forces, industrial, regulatory, judicial, public health, and public interest, that were engaged in this contest and estimates the value of this step.

Air Pollutants↗
PubMed1999

Performance assessment in support of the 1996 compliance certification application for the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant.

The conceptual and computational structure of a performance assessment (PA) for the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) is described. Important parts of this structure are (1) maintenance of a separation between stochastic (i.e., aleatory) and subjective (i.e., epistemic) uncertainty, with stochastic uncertainty arising from the many possible disruptions that could occur over the 10,000-year regulatory period that applies to the WIPP, and subjective uncertainty arising from the imprecision with which many of the quantities required in the analysis are known, (2) use of Latin hypercube sampling to incorporate the effects of subjective uncertainty, (3) use of Monte Carlo (i.e., random) sampling to incorporate the effects of stochastic uncertainty, and (4) efficient use of the necessarily limited number of mechanistic calculations that can be performed to support the analysis. The WIPP is under development by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) for the geologic (i.e., deep underground) disposal of transuranic (TRU) waste, with the indicated PA supporting a Compliance Certification Application (CCA) by the DOE to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in October 1996 for the necessary certifications for the WIPP to begin operation. The EPA certified the WIPP for the disposal of TRU waste in May 1998, with the result that the WIPP will be the first operational facility in the United States for the geologic disposal of radioactive waste.

Geological Phenomena↗
PubMed2000

Fitting second-order finite mixture models to data with many censored values using maximum likelihood estimation.

Finite mixture models, that is, weighted averages of parametric distributions, provide a powerful way to extend parametric families of distributions to fit data sets not adequately fit by a single parametric distribution. First-order finite mixture models have been widely used in the physical, chemical, biological, and social sciences for over 100 years. Using maximum likelihood estimation, we demonstrate how a first-order finite mixture model can represent the large variability in data collected by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for the concentration of Radon 222 in drinking water supplied from ground water, even when 28% of the data fall at or below the minimum reporting level. Extending the use of maximum likelihood, we also illustrate how a second-order finite mixture model can separate and represent both the variability and the uncertainty in the data set.

Algorithms↗
PubMed1991

Hazard communication/right-to-know for health care facilities.

This manual is intended to provide useful information on the various new and pending health and safety regulations that affect hospitals. The governing bodies promulgating these regulations are the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and state and local governments. The majority of this document is dedicated to the OSHA Hazard Communication Standard (or federal Employee Right-to-Know Law) and the EPA Superfund Amendment Reauthorization Act (SARA) Title III Regulations (or federal Community Right-to-Know Law).

Communication↗
PubMed1992

Environmental justice, regulation, and the local community.

This article examines the sociological significance of the concept of "environmental justice" for grassroots groups responding to toxic contamination in their local communities. Taking into account nationwide mobilization patterns in such communities, the author documents a precedent-setting episode in the city of Jacksonville, Arkansas, where citizen protests and support from national environmental groups led the Environmental Protection Agency to withdraw three Technical Assistance Grants inappropriately awarded to a group with links to a polluting industry, and subsequently to rewrite the rules for participation in such grants. As the first such challenge nationally, the Jacksonville scenario is an important "test case" and permits a theoretical and practical evaluation of the relationship between social groups, technology, and the governmental regulatory process. More particularly, it gives insight into the Technical Assistance Grants program, which was set up to enable citizens living close to contaminated sites to interpret and evaluate technical information relating to such sites, but which has been undercut by a weak EPA and cooptation efforts by industries. The article concludes with an exploration of the concept of community in relation to the new construction of environmental justice engaged in by grassroots groups fighting contamination locally and nationally.

Arkansas↗
PubMed1997

Sulfobutylether-beta-cyclodextrin-mediated capillary electrophoresis for separation of chlorinated and substituted phenols.

Cyclodextrin-mediated capillary electrophoresis has been developed for separation and analysis of chlorinated as well as substituted phenolic compounds. The procedure used a negatively charged sulfobutylether-beta-cyclodextrin (SB-betaCD) to effect differential partitioning of the phenols between the buffer and CD phases. In 50 mM phosphate buffer containing as low as 1 mM SB-betaCD, 25 phenolic compounds including 11 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) priority phenols were separated with theoretical plate numbers well above 100,000, for 50 cm of effective length in most cases. An equilibrium complexation model was used for investigating the effect of pH as well as different cyclodextrin concentrations on the electrophoretic mobility. The cyclodextrin-mediated capillary electrophoresis system was also applicable for separating and quantifying the level of pentachlorophenol in contaminated soil samples.

Chlorophenols↗
PubMed2002

A holistic look at minimizing adverse environmental impact under Section 316(b) of the Clean Water Act.

Section 316(b) of the Clean Water Act (CWA) requires that "the location, design, construction, and capacity of cooling water intake structures reflect the best technology available for minimizing adverse environmental impact." As the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) develops new regulations to implement Section 316(b), much of the debate has centered on adverse impingement and entrainment impacts of cooling-water intake structures. Depending on the specific location and intake layout, once-through cooling systems withdrawing many millions of gallons of water per day can, to a varying degree, harm fish and other aquatic organisms in the water bodies from which the cooling water is withdrawn. Therefore, opponents of once-through cooling systems have encouraged the EPA to require wet or dry cooling tower systems as the best technology available (BTA), without considering site-specific conditions. However, within the context of the broader scope of the CWA mandate, this focus seems too narrow. Therefore, this article examines the phrase "minimizing adverse environmental impact" in a holistic light. Emphasis is placed on the analysis of the terms "environmental" and "minimizing." Congress chose "environmental" in lieu of other more narrowly focused terms like "impingement and entrainment," "water quality," or "aquatic life." In this light, BTA for cooling-water intake structures must minimize the entire suite of environmental impacts, as opposed to just those associated with impingement and entrainment. Wet and dry cooling tower systems work well to minimize entrainment and impingement, but they introduce other equally important impacts because they impose an energy penalty on the power output of the generating unit. The energy penalty results from a reduction in plant operating efficiency and an increase in internal power consumption. As a consequence of the energy penalty, power companies must generate additional electricity to achieve the same net output. This added production leads to additional environmental impacts associated with extraction and processing of the fuel, air emissions from burning the fuel, and additional evaporation of freshwater supplies during the cooling process. Wet towers also require the use of toxic biocides that are subsequently discharged or disposed. The other term under consideration, "minimizing," does not equal "eliminating." Technologies may be available to minimize but not totally eliminate adverse environmental impacts.

Air Pollution↗
PubMed2004

Analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in contaminated soil by Curie point pyrolysis coupled to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, an alternative to conventional methods.

Curie point pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS) has been compared with classical extraction procedures (Soxhlet, sonication, KOH digestion, microwave-assisted) followed by GC-MS analysis for the determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in contaminated soil. In each case, the efficiency of the technique was examined for 16 PAHs included in the US Environmental Protection Agency Priority Pollutant List. The results indicate that the recovery of PAHs is dependent on the extraction technique. The highest recoveries of PAHs were obtained with Curie point pyrolysis and KOH digestion. Py-GC-MS appeared to be interesting alternative method for the determination of PAHs in contaminated soil. The results were validated by certified soil (CRM 104) analysis.

Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry↗
PubMed1997

Evaluation of the Ultraviolet Index: media reactions and public response.

BACKGROUND: In response to the increasing rate of skin cancer, particularly melanoma in the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency, the National Weather Service, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Association of Physicians for the Environment, and the American Academy of Dermatology, developed the Ultraviolet Index (UVI) to inform the public of the strength of the sun's rays and advise on methods for sun protection. OBJECTIVE: Our purpose was to evaluate the extent to which television stations and newspapers reported the UVI and assess the public's response to it. METHODS: To evaluate the effect of this effort, we surveyed television weather forecasters at 185 stations and examined weather pages in 54 newspapers in 58 cities that received the UVI reports. We also conducted a population probability telephone survey of 700 white adults (18 years of age and older) in these 58 cities. RESULTS: Seventy-one percent of the 169 stations that provided survey data for both 1994 and 1995 broadcast the UVI; 61% of newspapers reported the UVI. Nearly 64% of the 700 respondents (n = 445) had heard of the UVI. Of these respondents, 38% (n = 170) stated that they or their family changed their sun protection practices as a result of the UVI. CONCLUSION: The majority of television weather forecasters and newspapers reported the UVI. Most of the public was aware of the UVI, causing some to change sun protection practices. Further evaluation is required to maximize the effect of the UVI on sun protection practices.

Adult↗
PubMed1989

A risk assessment for selected lead-induced health effects: an example of a general methodology.

The research described here is part of a larger risk assessment project to aid the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in its review of the primary National Ambient Air Quality Standard for lead. The methodology can be applied to many situations in which a policy decision about a toxic substance is required in the face of incomplete data. Numerical results are presented for three potentially adverse lead-induced effects of interest to EPA: elevated erythrocyte protoporphyrin (EP), hemoglobin (Hb) decrement, and intelligence quotient (IQ) decrement.

Air Pollutants↗
PubMed1998

St. Joseph teams up wih EPA for big energy savings.

U.S government to the rescue? An energy savings program with the U.S Environmental Protection Agency is saving big bucks for plenty of health care facilities around the country. A good example is St. Joseph Hospital in Lancaster, PA, which is saving an estimated $175,000 each year from new lighting fixtures alone. And that's just the beginning. Here's the story, plus details on how you can tap into this voluntary program.

Conservation of Energy Resources↗
PubMed2005

Long-term relationships between SO2 and NOx emissions and SO4(2-) and NO3- concentration in bulk deposition at the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, NH.

A highly significant second-order polynomial relation between SO(2) emissions and SO(4)(2-) concentrations during 1970-2000 (r(2)= 0.80, p= <0.001), and a linear relation between NO(x) and NO(3)(-) concentrations during 1991-2000 (r(2)= 0.67, p= 0.004) in bulk precipitation were found for the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, NH based on emissions from a 24 h, back-trajectory determined source area. Earlier periods (1965-1980) for SO(2)ratio SO(4)(2-) and longer periods (1965-2000) for NO(x)ratio NO(3)(-) had poorer linear relations, r(2)= 0.03, p= 0.51 and r(2)= 0.22, p= 0.004, respectively. Methodology by the US Environmental Protection Agency for calculating emissions data during this period has changed significantly and frequently, making trend analysis difficult. Given the large potential for errors in estimating emissions and to a lesser extent, deposition, the robust relations between SO(2) emissions and SO(4)(2-) concentrations in bulk precipitation at the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest show that careful, long-term measurements from a single monitoring site can provide sound and reasonable data on trends in air pollution.

Acid Rain↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Indoor radon: a case study in risk communication.

Two key questions have influenced the development and implementation of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) program to reduce the public health risks of indoor radon gas; the answers may also apply to other preventive health care programs. First, how can we best communicate risk? Risk communication research indicates that simple message, persuasion, and prescriptive guidance will best encourage citizens to protect themselves from voluntary risks (within the control of the individual), such as radon. However, scientists expect technical information, logical and unemotional appeals, and detailed explanations of uncertainty. An appropriate balance between the persuasive and the technical will encourage public action and assuage the scientific community. Second, what environmental health care problems should we focus on? Public concern with involuntary risks imposed by an external force, such as hazardous waste dumps, drive our environmental health agenda. Consequently, because government decision-makers respond to public perceptions and pressures, which they frequently support, the largest fraction of the government's resources and the most aggressive protection programs are typically reserved for environmental health problems that pose involuntary risks. The experience of the EPA's Radon Program suggests that major gains in public health protection could be achieved through communication that effectively persuades people to accept personal responsibility for preventing voluntary risks, such as radon, and a more informed dialogue between the scientific community and the public concerning national priorities for environmental health protection.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Air Pollution, Indoor↗