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PubMed2006

The ironies of vehicle feedback in car design.

Car drivers show an acute sensitivity towards vehicle feedback, with most normal drivers able to detect 'the difference in vehicle feel of a medium-size saloon car with and without a fairly heavy passenger in the rear seat' (Joy and Hartley 1953-54). The irony is that this level of sensitivity stands in contrast to the significant changes in vehicle 'feel' accompanying modern trends in automotive design, such as drive-by-wire and increased automation. The aim of this paper is to move the debate from the anecdotal to the scientific level. This is achieved by using the Brunel University driving simulator to replicate some of these trends and changes by presenting (or removing) different forms of non-visual vehicle feedback, and measuring resultant driver situational awareness (SA) using a probe-recall method. The findings confirm that vehicle feedback plays a key role in coupling the driver to the dynamics of their environment (Moray 2004), with the role of auditory feedback particularly prominent. As a contrast, drivers in the study also rated their self-perceived levels of SA and a concerning dissociation occurred between the two sets of results. Despite the large changes in vehicle feedback presented in the simulator, and the measured changes in SA, drivers appeared to have little self-awareness of these changes. Most worryingly, drivers demonstrated little awareness of diminished SA. The issues surrounding vehicle feedback are therefore similar to the classic problems and ironies studied in aviation and automation, and highlight the role that ergonomics can also play within the domain of contemporary vehicle design.

Automation↗
PubMed2005

Effect of button location on driver's visual behaviour and safety perception.

Although buttons are a frequently used type of control in car interiors, little research has been undertaken on how the usage of buttons affects the visual behaviour of the driver. In this study, the aim was to analyse the effect of push button location and auditory feedback on drivers' visual time off road and safety perception when driving in a real traffic situation. The effect of six button locations (five on the centre stack, one near the gear stick) was tested. Drivers' visual behaviour was studied in real traffic on a motorway. An eye tracking system recorded the visual behaviour of eight drivers who, in 96 repeated trials each, were instructed to press a specific button. Data analysis focused on the drivers' visual time off road and safety perception in relation to the location of the button to be pressed. Auditory feedback did not show a significant effect on visual time off road. The time off road increased significantly as the angle increased between the normal line of sight and button location for the five buttons placed on the centre stack. Results for the button located close to the gear stick, with the highest eccentricity, produced a short time off road. This unexpected finding is discussed in terms of three potential explanations: 1) the role of perceptual discrimination; 2) risk perception; and 3) motor control.

Attention↗
PubMed2000

Traffic accident reduction by monitoring driver behaviour with in-car data recorders.

People who are aware of being observed tend to modify their behaviour. This phenomenon could potentially be used to encourage individuals to behave more safely when driving if there were means of providing feedback to the drivers about their behaviour on the road. So-called 'vehicle data recorders' offer such a means of providing behavioural feedback by confronting drivers with their recorded driving actions. A field trial of a 'matched experimental/control group design with intervention' was planned with the objective of investigating whether this feedback mechanism would reduce the number of road traffic accidents in everyday driving conditions. In the study, seven experimental vehicle fleets were involved, which varied widely in terms of the kind of transport sector concerned, the type of vehicles used, and the traffic circumstances in which the vehicles are operated. Each fleet was matched with at least one control vehicle fleet, taking into account those relevant traffic safety characteristics. In total, accident and exposure data were collected for 840 vehicles of which 270 equipped with a recorder. During an observation period representing a total of about 3,100 vehicle years, these vehicles were involved in 1,836 road accidents. Analysis of the effects of the use of data recorders in these fleets resulted in an average estimated accident reduction of some 20%. The analysis shows that the actual savings vary depending on the transport sector involved and on the prior level of the fleet's safety record. Further studies are needed to identify the more promising application of such a use of traffic data recorders as a means of reducing road accidents.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMed2006

On-road vehicle detection: a review.

Developing on-board automotive driver assistance systems aiming to alert drivers about driving environments, and possible collision with other vehicles has attracted a lot of attention lately. In these systems, robust and reliable vehicle detection is a critical step. This paper presents a review of recent vision-based on-road vehicle detection systems. Our focus is on systems where the camera is mounted on the vehicle rather than being fixed such as in traffic/driveway monitoring systems. First, we discuss the problem of on-road vehicle detection using optical sensors followed by a brief review of intelligent vehicle research worldwide. Then, we discuss active and passive sensors to set the stage for vision-based vehicle detection. Methods aiming to quickly hypothesize the location of vehicles in an image as well as to verify the hypothesized locations are reviewed next. Integrating detection with tracking is also reviewed to illustrate the benefits of exploiting temporal continuity for vehicle detection. Finally, we present a critical overview of the methods discussed, we assess their potential for future deployment, and we present directions for future research.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMed2003

Blow and go: the Breath-Analyzed Ignition Interlock Device as a technological response to DWI.

Driving while intoxicated rates have declined substantially in the last 20 years. This is as a result of public opinion combined with increased law enforcement efforts. A recent tool has been the Breath Analyzed Ignition Interlock Device. This new technology is designed to prevent persons with excessive blood alcohol levels from operating the interlocked vehicle. This 3-year recidivism study of the ignition interlock revealed 17.5% recidivism rates for the interlock group compared to 25.3% recidivism rates for the non-interlock group, a 31% decrease. Multiple offenders and younger (under 30) offenders had significantly lower rates of subsequent arrests. The multi-offenders in the comparison group were more than twice as likely as the interlock group to have a subsequent conviction within 3 years. The difference was nearly the same for the under 30 age group. There was almost no difference for first offenders. Accordingly, the ignition interlock appears to significantly reduce recidivism for repeat and younger DWI offenders but offers almost no improvement for first offenders. One driver of 315 (0.32%) was charged with DWI with an interlock in place. This offender had a child provide the breath sample while she drove the vehicle.

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMed2006

The impact of four-wheel drives on traffic disability and deaths compared to passenger cars.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to examine the pattern of injuries resulting from road traffic crashes involving four wheel drives (4WD) vehicles and passenger cars in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). DESIGN: Descriptive study. PLACE AND DURATION OF STUDY: Al-Ain and Tawam Hospital, UAE, during a period from 1st January to 31st December 2000. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A questionnaire was created and filled out concerning: sociodemographic information; data about driving behavior and attitude which included driving experience, adherence to traffic laws (including speed limits and wearing seat belt), driving habits, and assessment of sustained injury was performed according to the Abbreviated Injury Score (AIS). RESULTS: A total of 1157 motor vehicle crashes related casualty patients were hospitalized during the year 2000. Of these total patients, 495 victims (42.8%) were involved with 4WDs road traffic crashes related injuries and 72.9% of them required hospitalization. Of these, 76.8% were males, 60.7% were non-UAE nationals. The head injury was more common in those who had crashes from 4WD vehicles (45.6%) than those who had crashes from small cars (37.3%). Abbreviated injury scare showed that four wheelers caused more severe (9.1%), serious (10.3%), critical (8.3%) and moderate injuries (13.9%). A significant higher risk was observed for speed violations (OR=2.06; 95% CI=1.55 - 2.76, p<0.001) property damage (OR=1.54; 95% CI=1.07-2.22, p<0.014) and pedestrian accident (OR=2.09; 95% CI=1.46-2.99, p<0.001). CONCLUSION: The present study findings indicated that nearly half of the road traffic crashes were involved with 4WD vehicles and that most of the injured individuals were pedestrian and younger drivers. Reduction in motor vehicle injuries and deaths represents a major public health success.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMed2005

A comparison of eye movement behavior of inexperienced and experienced drivers in real traffic environments.

PURPOSE: The importance of the visual system as the input channel for sensory information necessary when driving is often stated. There are several reports on differences in visual search strategies between experienced and inexperienced drivers, as well as in relation to the roadway. However, the results are ambiguous and are not sampled by similar procedures. Based on previous findings, the aim of the present study was to gain further knowledge on these differences by testing the hypotheses that inexperienced drivers, in comparison to experienced drivers, fixate closer to the vehicle, fixate more often on in-vehicle objects, spread their fixations less along the horizontal meridian, fixate more often on relevant traffic cues, and fixate more often on objects classified as potential hazards. METHODS: Data from eye-tracker recordings of visual search strategies of the driver in real-world traffic were used for the analyses. RESULTS: The results confirmed all stated hypotheses regarding differences between inexperienced and experienced drivers, with the exception of fixations closer to the vehicle, in which ambiguous results were found. CONCLUSIONS: The present study provides normative data for the understanding of the development of visual search strategies among drivers. The methodology used in the present study, i.e., to combine a quantitative analysis with a qualitative analysis proved, to be useful to compare visual search strategies among inexperienced and experienced drivers.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

[Driving with light during the day?].

In various Scandinavian countries the use of headlights during daytime (daytime running light DRL) is obligatory since many years. In Canada all new cars have to be equipped with a daytime running light since 1990. Whether or not in Germany or in the southern neighbouring countries a daytime running light should be used is matter of controversial discussion during the least years. Daytime running light increases the visibility of oncoming cars tremendously. Not only the drivers, but also pedestrians and cyclists profit from this gain of visibility. Especially drivers with poor vision, who will become more and more frequent during the coming years due to the increase of percentage of older drivers, have a specific profit from daytime running light. Potentially negative side-effects of daytime running light are: reduction of visibility of the brake-lights, glare, loss of visibility for pedestrians and cyclists, damage to the retina, increase of fuel consumption. All these arguments are either not crucial or cannot be documented by statistical data. On the other hand the data which are available up to now concerning frequency of accidents in those countries and areas in which daytime running light was used or is used, show a trend, sometimes even a statistical significant reduction of daytime accidents. This reduction is especially pronounced for accidents with pedestrians and cyclists. Overall, there are more and better arguments for using daytime running light, also in Germany. A technical alternative would be an automatic switching of the headlights if horizontal illuminance drops below a specific limit, e.g. 2000-3000 lx. Such an automatic procedure would increase the percentage of cars using headlights in critical situations during daytime.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMed2004

Controlling impaired driving through vehicle programs: an overview.

The growing recognition of the problem presented by illicit vehicle operation by those whose license has been suspended for driving while intoxicated (DWI) has led to the increasing use of vehicle sanctions. These sanctions include vehicle impoundment and forfeiture, vehicle registration cancellation, and vehicle interlocks as penalties for DWI and driving while suspended (DWS). This article reviews the current information available on the use and effectiveness of vehicle sanctions for reducing offender recidivism. In the United States, 14 states have impoundment laws that are widely used as sanctions for both DWI and DWS, with the length of the impoundment increasing with the number of previous offenses. These laws have been shown to reduce recidivism while the vehicle is in custody and, to a lesser extent, even after the vehicle has been released. Vehicle impoundment is also widely used in Canada and New Zealand. Although a larger number of U.S. states have laws providing for vehicle forfeiture for DWI or DWS, this sanction tends to be limited to multiple offenders and therefore impacts fewer drivers. Cancellation of the vehicle registration and the confiscation of the vehicle plates are increasing in popularity because the vehicle tags are the property of the state, rather than the vehicle owner. Vehicle alcohol interlocks have proven to be an effective method for reducing DWI offender recidivism while they are on the car, but appear to produce only limited post-treatment behavior change. Interlocks are widely used in the United States and Canada and are beginning to be implemented in Europe and Australia. The issues that arise in implementing vehicle sanction programs are discussed and the actions taken by states to deal with them are described.

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMed2005

Seat inclination, use of lumbar support and low-back pain of taxi drivers.

OBJECTIVES: Epidemiologic evidence supporting optimal seating is limited and inconsistent. This cross-sectional study was conducted to examine the association between seat inclination, use of lumbar support, and the prevalence of clinically significant low-back pain among taxi drivers METHODS: A digital inclinometer was used to measure inclinations of seat surfaces (theta(seat)) and backrests (theta(back)), and calculate the back-to-thigh angle (theta(back-thigh)). Structured interviews were conducted to gather information on the use of lumbar support and the prevalence of low-back pain that had led to medical attention or absence from driving in the past month. A multiple logistic regression analysis was used to estimate the prevalence odds ratio (OR) with adjustment for age, body mass index, professional seniority, monthly driving hours, and the intensity of exposure to whole-body vibration. RESULTS: Among 224 drivers, the mean theta(seat), and theta(backrest) were 14.5 (SD 9.6) and 95.1 (SD 2.7) degrees, respectively, resulting in theta(back-thigh) of 80.6 (SD 9.3) degrees. Fifty-five percent used a lumbar support regularly, but 25% reportedly had significant low-back pain. The prevalence of low-back pain was 23% among those with theta(back-thigh) <86 degrees, 37% for those with a theta(back-thigh) of 86 approximately 91 degrees, and 9% for a theta(back-thigh) of >91 degrees. The adjusted OR comparing those with a theta(back-thigh) of < or = 91 degrees to those with a theta(back-thigh) of >91 degrees was 5.11 [95% confidence interval (95% CI) 1.07 approximately 24.4]. For regularly using drivers versus those not using lumbar support, the prevalence of low-back pain was 18% versus 34%, with an adjusted OR of 0.33 (95% CI 0.16 approximately 0.68). Neither theta(seat) nor theta(backrest) alone was significantly associated with low-back pain. CONCLUSIONS: The epidemiologic observation of this study was consistent with the results of prior biomechanical studies on appropriate seat inclinations and the use of lumbar support. Prospective studies are needed to confirm the true beneficial effects of these seating parameters.

Automobile Driving↗
PubMed1999

Effectiveness of ignition interlock devices in reducing drunk driving recidivism.

OBJECTIVE: To determine if ignition interlock devices reduce driving while intoxicated (DWI) recidivism. SEARCH STRATEGIES: Cochrane Collaboration search strategies were used. SELECTION CRITERIA: Studies for selection examined the effectiveness of interlock programs in a defined population. Studies were required to have a clear description of the program and outcomes evaluated, to have a comparison group and to provide interpretable data. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: A total of 31 studies were found. Ten studies met the selection criteria. Three of these studies were eliminated from further analysis because they did not contain original data. A fourth study was eliminated due to methodologic weaknesses, leaving six studies for final review and analysis. Pooled analyses were not done because studies did not follow similar methods over comparable time periods. MAIN RESULTS: Five of the six studies found interlocks were effective in reducing DWI recidivism while the interlock was installed in the car. In the five studies demonstrating a significant effect, participants in the interlock programs were 15%-69% less likely than controls to be re-arrested for DWI. The only reported randomized, controlled trial demonstrated a 65% reduction in re-arrests for DWI in the interlock group, compared with the control group. CONCLUSIONS: Alcohol ignition interlock programs appear to be effective in reducing DWI recidivism during the time period when the interlock is installed in the car. Future studies should attempt to control for exposure (i.e., number of miles driven) and determine if certain sub-groups are most benefited by interlock programs.

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMed2003

The impact of mandatory versus voluntary participation in the Alberta ignition interlock program.

Research has demonstrated that participation in an interlock program significantly reduces the likelihood of subsequent driving while intoxicated (DWI) convictions at least so long as the interlock device is installed in the vehicle. Despite the growing number of jurisdictions that allow interlock programs and the demonstrated success of these programs, the proportion of DWI offenders who actually have the device installed is minimal. In an effort to increase the proportion of offenders using interlocks, some jurisdictions require offenders to install an interlock as a condition of license reinstatement whereas others merely offer offenders a reduction in the period of hard suspension if they voluntarily participate in an interlock program. The objective of the present study was to determine the extent to which voluntary interlock participants are more or less successful in terms of subsequent recidivism than those for whom interlock program participation has been mandated. The issue was addressed using data from the interlock program in Alberta, Canada, which provides for both mandatory and voluntary participation. The recidivism experience of voluntary and mandatory interlock participants was examined both during and after the period of interlock installation. Cox regression revealed that, after controlling for (or equating) the number of prior DWI offenses, the survival rates of DWI offenders who were ordered to participate in the interlock program did not differ from those of voluntary participants. These results suggest that further use of mandatory interlock programs should be just as successful as voluntary programs when offenders share characteristics with those studied in Alberta.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMed2002

Effects of uncertainty, transmission type, driver age and gender on brake reaction and movement time.

PROBLEM: Braking time (BT) is a critical component in safe driving, and various approaches have been applied to minimize it. This study analyzed the components of BT in order to assess the effects of age, gender, vehicle transmission type, and event uncertainty, on its two primary components, perception-reaction time and brake-movement time. METHOD: Perception-reaction time and brake-movement time were measured at the onset of lights for 72 subjects in a simulator. The six experimental conditions were three levels of uncertainty conditions (none, some, and some + false alarms) and two types of transmission (manual and automatic). The 72 subjects, half male and half female, were further divided into three age groups (mean of 23, 30, and 62 years). Each subject had 10 trials in each of the three levels of uncertainty conditions. RESULTS: Transmission type did not significantly affect either perception-reaction time or brake-movement time. Perception-reaction time increased significantly from 0.32 to 0.42 s (P < .05) as uncertainty increased but brake-movement time did not change. Perception-reaction time increased (from 0.35 to 0.43 s) with age but brake-movement time did not change with age. Gender did not affect perception-reaction time but did affect brake-movement time (males 0.19 s vs. females 0.16 s). IMPACT ON INDUSTRY: At 90 km/h, a car travels 0.25 m in 0.01 s. Consequently, even such small effects multiplied by millions of vehicle-kilometers can contribute to significant savings in lives and damages.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

An evaluation of the Swedish ignition interlock program.

The Swedish alcohol ignition interlock program for driving while intoxicated (DWI) offenders, both first-time as well as multiple offenders, was launched as a pilot project in 1999. It is a volunteer program and differs in some respects from other programs: It covers a period of 2 years, it includes very strict medical regulations entailing regular checkups by a physician, it does not require a prior period of hard suspension, and it focuses strongly on changes in alcohol habits. Records from the 5 years prior to the offence showed that DWI offenders are generally in a high-risk category long before their offense, with a four to five times higher accident rate (road accidents reported by the police) and a three to four times higher rate of hospitalization due to a road accident. Only 12% of the eligible DWI offenders took part in the program and, of these, 60% could be diagnosed as alcohol dependent or alcohol abusers. During the program, alcohol consumption is monitored through self-esteem questionnaires (AUDIT) and five different biological markers. Our data show a noticeable reduction in alcohol consumption among the interlock users. This, combined with the high rate of compliance with the regulations, probably accounts for the fact that there was no case of recidivism during the program. Preliminary findings also suggest a reduction in the annual accident rate for interlock users while in the program. It still is too early to draw any conclusions concerning the rate of recidivism after completion of the program due to an insufficient amount of data for analysis. Nevertheless, the preliminary results are so promising that the program will now be expanded to cover all of Sweden as well as to include all driver's license categories.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMed1990

Risk for DWI: a new look at gender differences in drinking and driving influences, experiences, and attitudes among new adolescent drivers.

Adolescent drivers are over-represented in fatal auto accidents, especially those involving alcohol (DWI). Young male drivers appear to be at higher risk than adolescent female drivers because of a variety of important influencing factors. The current study takes a new look at the gender differences in these factors as they relate to driving behavior. Three hundred forty-three tenth-grade students (mean age: 15.8 years; 52% male, 48% female) were studied measuring demographics, family characteristics and influences, drug and alcohol use, perception of driving skill, sensation-seeking, other personality factors and responses to DWI vignettes for decision-making skill. Female respondents more often had difficulty with parents (p = 0.03) than males and more often used drugs and alcohol (p = 0.05). Boys more often attended speed competitions (p = 0.003), had legal problems (p = 0.004), and dated at a younger age (p less than 0.001). Males perceived greater driving skill in risky situations and used the automobile to enhance self-efficacy more than females (p = 0.001/p = 0.05). Male drivers scored higher on anger/hostility and sensation-seeking scales (p = 0.05). There were few significant gender differences in the way respondents analyzed risky DWI situations. Even though female subjects used more alcohol/drugs and came from more disturbed family backgrounds, their attitudes and behavior with respect to DWI appear more socially acceptable. Speculation as to some of the reasons for this effect are discussed with implications for prevention and further research.

Adolescent↗