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PubMed1979

Independence of reading and spelling in backward and normal readers.

To investigate how backward readers spell and the connections between their spelling and their reading, a large group of backward readers and a comparable group of normal readers were given the same words to read and spell. The two skills were surprisingly separate in both groups, in that the children could read words which they did not spell and spell words which they did not read, although the discrepancy was greater in the backward readers. Further analysis suggested that both groups used a phonological cues in spelling more than in reading. This suggestion was supported in a second experiment, in which encouragement to use phonological cues changed the children's reading patterns.

Child↗
PubMed1998

Reading ability and processing in Duchenne muscular dystrophy and spinal muscular atrophy.

We analysed the reading abilities and processing of 21 children with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), 11 matched children suffering from spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) and 42 children receiving normal education. The principal result observed was that the DMD children exhibited a reading age which was significantly lower than the SMA children compared with their chronological age. These learning disabilities were not related to a deficit in non-verbal performance intelligence, but psycholinguistic evaluation showed a deficit in verbal intelligence, especially in the Similarities and Arithmetic WISC-R subtests, in phonological abilities, oral word repetition, and in digit span score. The results for the DMD children were heterogeneous, and ranged from normal to greater or lesser involvement. In an attempt to clarify the nature of this reading impairment in DMD children, the three groups (DMD, SMA, and normal control children) were tested by reading aloud a list of single words and non-words. The DMD children were significantly impaired in reading non-words, suggesting reading disability similar to dysphonetic dyslexia, the most frequent subtype of developmental dyslexia. These results are discussed in the light of psychometric data available for our DMD population and in the light of previous studies. The practical consequences of diagnosis on rehabilitation are very important. The precise description of the cognitive deficits seen in DMD is of value for future clinical and genetic studies.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Screening for Meares-Irlen sensitivity in adults: can assessment methods predict changes in reading speed?

Two methods of assessing candidates for coloured overlays were compared with the aim of determining which method had the most practical utility. A total of 58 adults were assessed as potential candidates for coloured overlays, using two methods; a questionnaire, which identified self-reported previous symptoms, and a measure of perceptual distortions immediately prior to testing. Participants were classified as normal, Meares-Irlen sensitive, and borderline sensitive. Reading speed was measured with and without coloured overlays, using the Wilkins Rate of Reading Test and the change in speed was calculated. Participants classified as normal did not show any significant benefit from reading with an overlay. In contrast, a significant reading advantage was found for the borderline and Meares-Irlen participants. Current symptom rating was found to be a significant predictor of the change in reading speed, however the previous symptom rating was not found to be a reliable predictor. These data indicate that the assessment of perceptual distortions immediately prior to measuring colour preference and reading speed is the most meaningful method of assessing pattern glare and determining the utility of coloured overlays.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Reading epilepsy.

This is a report of a 21-year-old woman with reading epilepsy. Clinical and electroencephalographic (EEG) observations are presented while the patient read a news magazine in Spanish, read a magazine in English, read an announcement repetitively, viewed comic strips without legends, made a mathematical calculation. Only reading in Spanish produced clinical and EEG paroxysms. This case report supports the "communication" hypothesis as opposed to hypotheses that emphasize proprioceptive and other "lower order" stimuli in evoking seizures while reading.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Primary reading epilepsy: investigation of critical seizure-provoking stimuli.

Precipitating stimuli were investigated in a 24-year-old woman with primary reading epilepsy. Reading material was presented on a microcomputer video display monitor under controlled conditions while the patient underwent EEG radiotelemetry/video monitoring. We examined the relative contribution of the following variables utilizing a factorial design: eye movements, reading aloud versus reading silently, linguistic complexity, and concentrations. None of these factors acted solely as the critical stimulus in provoking seizures. Seizures were most readily elicited when the patient read aloud, using material of medium or high linguistic complexity with the usual scanning eye movements for reading.

Adult↗
PubMed1990

Articulatory coding in prose reading: evidence from braille on changes with skill.

The role of speech-based strategies in prose reading was tested in two experiments with braillists at different levels of proficiency. Subjects read prose texts in silent and oral control conditions, under articulatory suppression, and while making non-speech movements during silent and oral reading, respectively. Experiment 1 used relatively difficult braille texts and showed that articulatory suppression reduced comprehension significantly compared to the other conditions. Speed (syllables per minute) was not significantly reduced under articulatory suppression, although two subjects were unable to read at all in that condition. Experiment 2 used easy texts and included beginning readers. Proficiency levels interacted significantly with experimental conditions for both speed and comprehension. The best readers showed no effect of articulatory suppression on either speed or comprehension with easy tests. Beginners showed significantly reduced speed and comprehension (or failed to score at all) under articulatory suppression, despite good comprehension in control conditions. For subjects in the middle groups, articulatory suppression had some effect on comprehension but speeded rather than slowed reading, if anything. The results suggest that articulatory suppression can affect input strategies as well as comprehension, but that the strategies which underly it vary with skill and test conditions. It was argued that suppression taps important but changing strategies in prose reading.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Visual acuity and the ability of the visually impaired to read medication instructions.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Although medical information is often communicated in writing, little attention is given as to whether patients can read it--for example, the miniscule writing on the side of the medication bottles (equivalent to 6/6 reduced Snellen). The authors wished to determine a distance visual acuity threshold, using routine assessments of visual acuity (VA), beyond which patients are unable to read their instructions. METHODS: 180 patients, subgrouped according to the best line of Snellen acuity (from 6/9 to 6/60) achieved in either eye were recruited. Subjects were asked to read the printed manufacturer's instructions on the side of the drops box without magnification. RESULTS: Those subjects with best corrected VA of lower than or equal to 6/24 showed a significantly diminished ability to read the instructions on their eye drops bottles (p<0.001 for each comparison). When this group selected a font size of their choosing, the mode for preferred Arial font sizes were 16 for the 6/24 group, 18 for 6/36, and 22 for 6/60. CONCLUSION: This study documents the inability of patients with visual impairment to read the instructions on their bottle of eye drops. There is evidence of a distance VA threshold effect such that, although the majority of patients with 6/18 VA are able to read their instructions, patients whose VA is worse cannot. This latter group would benefit from a larger font size, a size of Arial 22 being sufficient. We recommend that all printed information for patients with visual acuities between 6/24 and 6/60 be printed in font Arial 22 or equivalent.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Helping blind and partially sighted people to read: the effectiveness of low vision aids.

AIMS: To substantiate the claim that low vision aids reduce the degree of disability associated with visual impairment. METHODS: An observational study of vision, ocular pathology, age, sex, and reading ability in new referrals to a low vision clinic. Reading ability was assessed both with the patients' own spectacles and with an appropriate low vision aid. RESULTS: The reading performance and biographical characteristics of new referrals to a low vision clinic were recorded. Data were collected for 168 people over a 6 month period. Upon arrival at the clinic the mean functional visual acuity equated to 6/36 and 77% of patients were unable to read newsprint (N8). After a low vision assessment and provision of a suitable low vision aid 88% of new patients were able to read N8 or smaller text. CONCLUSIONS: The degree of visual impairment observed in new referrals to a low vision clinic is sufficient to prevent the majority from performing many daily tasks. Low vision aids are an effective means of providing visual rehabilitation, helping almost nine out of 10 patients with impaired vision to read.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1993

Education, reading, and familial tendency as risk factors for myopia in Hong Kong fishermen.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: The aim was to assess the influence of childhood reading on the development of myopia after allowance for familial differences in susceptibility. DESIGN: The study was a cross sectional survey. SETTING: Four fishing harbours in Hong Kong in 1989. SUBJECTS: Participants were 408 men and women aged 15-39 years old from 159 families. MAIN RESULTS: Histories of school attendance and reading habits in childhood were obtained at interview. Myopia was assessed by retinoscopy. Associations between myopia (defined as a refractive error of at least -1.0D in one or both eyes) and indices of reading in childhood were explored. Myopia was more common in subjects who had attended school (odds ratio = 1.7, 95% CI 1.0-3.0), with the highest risks in those who had started school at the earliest ages and who had spent the most time reading and writing while at primary school. Allowance for familial tendency to myopia produced no diminution in the risks associated with reading. CONCLUSIONS: These data support the hypothesis that reading in childhood is a cause of short sight.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Language and reading acquisition in children with and without cochlear implants.

These data provide a coherent view of the spoken language and reading skills of children receiving cochlear implants. The data reveal both spoken language gains and clear benefit to these children with regard to reading. Improvement in reading is consistent with predictions based on prior research demonstrating a strong association between spoken language and reading. An intervention such as a cochlear implant has a direct effect on spoken language, and this can subsequently affect reading performance. This provides some of the first experimental evidence supporting the causal relationship between spoken language and reading.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Unlocking the nature of the phonological-deep dyslexia continuum: the keys to reading aloud are in phonology and semantics.

It has been argued that normal reading and acquired dyslexias reflect the role of three underlying primary systems (phonology, semantics, and vision) rather than neural mechanisms dedicated to reading. This proposal is potentially consistent with the suggestion that phonological and deep dyslexia represent variants of a single reading disorder rather than two separate entities. The current study explored this possibility, the nature of any continuum between the disorders, and the possible underlying bases of it. A case series of patients were given an assessment battery to test for the characteristics of phonological and deep dyslexia. The status of their underlying phonological and semantic systems was also investigated. The majority of participants exhibited many of the symptoms associated with deep dyslexia whether or not they made semantic errors. Despite wide variation in word and nonword reading accuracy, there was considerable symptom overlap across the cohort and, thus, no sensible dividing line to separate the participants into distinct groups. The patient data indicated that the deep-phonological continuum might best be characterized according to the severity of the individual's reading impairment rather than in terms of a strict symptom succession. Assessments of phonological and semantic impairments suggested that the integrity of these primary systems underpinned the patients' reading performance. This proposal was supported by eliciting the symptoms of deep-phonological dyslexia in nonreading tasks.

Aged↗
PubMed1989

Effects of a taped-words treatment on reading proficiency.

In an effort to increase reading proficiency, five 9th- and 10th-grade students with behavior disorders were instructed to read along with an audio type of vocabulary words recorded at 80 words per minute. Effects of the taped-words intervention on rate of reading vocabulary words as well as generalization effects of reading passages containing some of the same vocabulary words were assessed within a multiple baseline design. Results suggested significant effects due to practice. Minimal generalization from reading word lists to reading passages was demonstrated. The results of the present study are compared with similar investigations.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Kindergarten risk factors, cognitive factors, and teacher judgments as predictors of early reading in Dutch.

This study focused on the predictive value of risk factors, cognitive factors, and teachers' judgments in a sample of 462 kindergartners for their early reading skills and reading failure at the beginning of Grade 1. With respect to risk factors, enrollment in speech-language therapy, history of dyslexia or speech-language problems in the family, and the role of gender were considered. None of these risk factors were significantly related to reading performance. Cognitive factors in this study included letter knowledge, rapid naming ability, and nonword repetition skills. Of these skills, letter knowledge seemed to have the highest correlation with reading. Kindergarten teachers' judgments, including a task assignment scale and teachers' predictions, demonstrated a significant relationship with reading. Finally, to judge whether these predictors could identify reading disabilities, the discriminatory power of all predictors was assessed and appeared to be insufficient. Implications for screening purposes are discussed.

Child↗
PubMed1990

Using informed strategies for learning to enhance the reading and thinking skills of children with learning disabilities.

The purpose of this study was to improve the reading performance of children with learning disabilities using a classroom-based metacognitive reading program. The participants were third- and fourth-level 8- and 9-year-olds (13 boys and 5 girls) at a school for children with learning disabilities. A cross-sectional time series design was used. During pre- and posttesting participants were assessed on two measures of strategy awareness and a measure of perceived self-competence. During the instructional phase the metacognitive reading program was introduced. Participants were assessed on measures of reading performance throughout the study. In general, the findings were positive: Students increased in performance and awareness of strategies from pre- to posttesting. In addition, participants were placed in subgroups based on pretesting assessments. The subgroups differed on their improvements over time. This study provides preliminary evidence that a metacognitive reading program can be used with children with learning disabilities to improve their awareness about reading and their comprehension skills.

Awareness↗
PubMed1990

The relative value of reading ability and IQ as predictors of teacher-reported behavior problems.

Measures of early family adversity, pre-school-age IQ, school-age IQ, and reading ability were obtained from 779 Dunedin children. The data were used to examine the role of reading ability in the relationship between intellectual performance and teacher-reported behavior problems. Results of regression analyses showed that family adversity and pre-school-age IQ predicted problem behavior during the first year at school. However, reading scores accounted for a larger proportion of the variance in the later behavior problem scores than did school-age IQ scores, and when reading ability was entered in the regression equation before IQ, then reading but not IQ significantly predicted change in problem behavior during the primary school years. The results indicated that the association between IQ scores and problem behavior was mediated by reading ability and that a measure of school-age IQ has limited usefulness for models of primary school-age problem behavior.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1991

Differential effects of stimulant medication on reading performance of boys with hyperactivity with and without conduct disorder.

Controversy surrounding stimulant medication, particularly its effects on reading performance, continues to obscure the issue of the use of this drug in classroom situations. The present study emphasized careful differential diagnosis, double-blind and placebo approaches, and curriculum-based dependent measures to address these concerns. Methylphenidate was administered to two groups of boys, ages 8 through 11. The two groups included 27 subjects meeting criteria for attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder but not conduct disorder, known as hyperactive disorder (HD), and 28 subjects meeting criteria for both diagnostic categories, known as hyperactive-aggressive (HA). Only four subjects in each group met a discrepancy criterion for learning disabilities (LD). Methylphenidate was administered to both groups at three levels of dosage, along with baseline and placebo conditions. Dependent measures involved both reading recognition and reading comprehension, equivalent across all conditions. No significant results were found for the group with HD in either reading recognition or comprehension, due largely to unusual placebo reactions. Results were generally in the direction predicted for the group with HA, but only significantly so in reading comprehension, and no dose effect was found on this variable. Implications for reading as a dependent measure of medication effects are discussed.

Achievement↗
PubMed1991

Effects of reading and writing on cerebral laterality in good readers and children with dyslexia.

The present study evaluated the idea that the hemisphere-specific cognitive demands of reading and writing may induce task-specific maladaptive patterns of language lateralization in children with dyslexia. Situation-specific lateralization was examined in a repeated measures design under three dichotic listening conditions: baseline, concurrent reading, and concurrent writing. Twelve males with phonological dyslexia, 8 to 12 years old, were compared to 12 age-matched and 12 younger reading-matched good readers. Lateralization patterns were examined for condition-specific relationships to pseudoword decoding, word recognition, reading comprehension, spelling, and arithmetic. The results show that dyslexia is not related to incomplete lateralization or to a failure to inhibit verbal processing in the right hemisphere during reading and writing. Reading increased the lateralization of the children with dyslexia, which had a negative relation to arithmetic; writing caused a decrease in lateralization, which was linked specifically to deficits in phonological decoding and visual word recognition. The results suggest that children with dyslexia suffer from a selective linguistic vulnerability to left-hemisphere interference from the idiosyncratic attentional and processing demands of particular school tasks. Dyslexia is a much more dynamic and environmentally sensitive disorder than previously thought.

Achievement↗
PubMed2001

Processing of orthographic structure by adults of different reading ability.

The research presented here examines the proposal that orthographic processing in reading polysyllabic words takes place via an analysis of the word into an orthographic/morphological structure called the Basic Orthographic Syllabic Structure or BOSS. This structure includes the largest possible coda in the first component (e.g., the THUND of THUNDER) and, as such, it cuts across the phonological syllable boundary (e.g., THUN + DER). The existence of the BOSS has been previously supported by showing that words physically divided at their BOSS (e.g., THUND ER) are faster to recognize than those divided at their syllable (e.g., THUN DER). However, there has been little, if any, report of confirmatory evidence for this conclusion. Three experiments are reported here demonstrating that whether the BOSS division is faster than the syllable division depends crucially on the reading ability of the participants. Better adult reading, independently measured in terms of comprehension, is associated with a preference for the BOSS division while poorer adult reading is more associated with a syllable preference. Such a result potentially explains the conflicting findings that have been previously reported. A number of different explanations are offered for the pattern of results, with the suggestion that poorer adult reading is more oriented toward the pronunciation of the word than is better reading.

Adult↗