Defeating "the worm" in Rajasthan. Women and water: India.
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Asia↗
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Impact of combined large-scale ivermectin distribution and vector control on transmission of Onchocerca volvulus in the Niger basin, Guinea.
As part of the WHO Onchocerciasis Control Programme in West Africa (OCP), the attack phase of operations in the Niger basin in Guinea began in 1989 with the simultaneous use of ivermectin and vector control. Larvicide applications coupled with annual large-scale ivermectin distribution have greatly reduced blackfly infectivity (by 78.8% for the number of infective larvae per 1000 parous flies). The combination of vector control and ivermectin has permitted excellent control of transmission. In the original OCP area, it took 6-8 years of vector control alone to obtain an equivalent decrease in blackfly infectivity. For the same number of flies caught, transmission was much higher in areas where ivermectin had not been distributed. The combined use of ivermectin and vector control has opened up new prospects for carrying out OCP operations with, notably, the possibility of reducing larviciding operations.
Animals↗
Drug-resistant malaria--occurrence, control, and surveillance.
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Aminoquinolines↗
Evaluation of the Chagas' disease vector control program in Minas Gerais, Brazil, with special reference to Triatoma sordida.
As of 1979, data gathered by the Chagas' Disease Control Program (CDCP) in the Brazilian state of Minas Gerais indicated that Triatoma infestans was the Chagas' disease vector most commonly found in and around human dwellings. A decade later, however, this picture had changed, presumably as a result of control efforts; few specimens of T. infestans were collected; and Triatoma sordida had become the most commonly collected vector insect. The aim of the work reported here was to assess the effectiveness of the CDCP in Minas Gerais in 1979-1989, with special reference to T. sordida. For this purpose, 1979-1989 triatomine collection data were reviewed for the two Minas Gerais health districts (Montes Claros and Uberaba) believed to have the heaviest T. sordida infestations. In addition, 1987 data from a serologic survey for human Trypanosoma cruzi infections in seven municipalities of these regions were compared with earlier (1978) serologic data from the same locales. In general, the triatomine collection data documented the precipitous decline of T. infestans in and around human dwellings. They also indicated that while the T. sordida collections had remained stable (in Uberaba) or increased markedly (in Montes Claros), there had been no great upsurge in the numbers of T. sordida collected inside dwellings. It was concluded that control measures were preventing extensive house reinfestations in both Montes Claros and Uberaba; that the situation in Uberaba was relatively stable; and that the marked increase in T. sordida populations around homes in Montes Claros was associated with forest clearing and changing settlement patterns.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
Animals↗
Chagas Disease Control Programme in Brazil: a study of the effectiveness of 13 years of intervention.
Reported is an evaluation of 13 years of intervention by the Chagas Disease Control Programme in an endemic area (Montalvania) in the State of Minas Gerais, Brazil. The design used was an epidemiological panel study. The reduction of Trypanosoma cruzi infection rates was estimated from data collected on three separate occasions: a serological survey in 1975-80, a quasi-experimental study in 1987, and the present investigation. A random sample of 156 households was selected and blood samples were collected from 653 inhabitants. The data routinely collected by the control programme were analysed to correlate the results with the incidence of T. cruzi. The overall prevalence of infection was 2.3%; however, no participant under 14 years of age was found to have a positive serological test. The total reduction in T. cruzi infection rates in this area from the start of the programme's activities was estimated to be 83.5%. Cross-sectional comparisons for the age groups 2-6 years and 7-14 years indicated a 100% reduction in T. cruzi incidence rates; but cohort comparisons showed that 100% reduction was achieved only for the 2-6-years age group.
Adolescent↗
Parasite-specific eIF2 (eukaryotic initiation factor-2) kinase required for stress-induced translation control.
The ubiquitous intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii (phylum Apicomplexa) differentiates into an encysted form (bradyzoite) that can repeatedly re-emerge as a life-threatening acute infection (tachyzoite) upon impairment of immunity. Since the switch from tachyzoite to bradyzoite is a stress-induced response, we sought to identify components related to the phosphorylation of the alpha subunit of eIF2 (eukaryotic initiation factor-2), a well-characterized event associated with stress remediation in other eukaryotic systems. In addition to characterizing Toxoplasma eIF2alpha (TgIF2alpha), we have discovered a novel eIF2 protein kinase, designated TgIF2K-A (Toxoplasma gondii initiation factor-2kinase). Although the catalytic domain of TgIF2K-A contains sequence and structural features that are conserved among members of the eIF2 kinase family, TgIF2K-A has an extended N-terminal region that is highly divergent from other eIF2 kinases. TgIF2K-A specifically phosphorylates the regulatory serine residue of yeast eIF2alpha in vitro and in vivo, and can modulate translation when expressed in the yeast model system. We also demonstrate that TgIF2K-A phosphorylates the analogous regulatory serine residue of recombinant TgIF2alpha in vitro. Finally, we demonstrate that TgIF2alpha phosphorylation in tachyzoites is enhanced in response to heat shock or alkaline stress, conditions known to induce parasite differentiation in vitro. Collectively, this study suggests that eIF2 kinase-mediated stress responses are conserved in Apicomplexa, and a novel family member exists that may control parasite-specific events, including the clinically relevant conversion into bradyzoite cysts.
Amino Acid Sequence↗
Schistosomiasis control through rural health units.
In Egypt the main effort in the campaign against schistosomiasis involves providing free diagnosis and treatment through primary care facilities, especially rural health units. The prospects for improving these services are considered below.
Child↗
Nematode parasites of animals are more prone to develop xenobiotic resistance than nematode parasites of plants.
In this paper, we concentrate on a comparison of plant and animal-parasitic nematodes, to gain insight into the factors that influence the acquisition of the drug resistance by nematodes. Comparing nematode parasite of domestic animals and cultivated plants, it appears that drug resistance threatens only domestic animal production. Does the paucity of report on nematicide field resistance reflect reality or, is nematicide resistance bypassed by other management practices, specific to cultivated plants (i.e. agricultural control)? First, it seems that selection pressure by treatments in plants is not as efficient as selection pressure in ruminants. Agronomic practices (i.e. sanitation, early planting, usage of nematodes resistant cultivar and crop rotation) are frequently used to control parasitic-plant nematodes. Although the efficiency of such measures is generally moderate to high, integrated approaches are developing successfully in parasitic-plant nematode models. Secondly, the majority of anthelmintic resistance cases recorded in animal-parasitic nematodes concern drug families that are not used in plant-parasitic nematodes control (i.e. benzimidazoles, avermectines and levamisole). Thirdly, particular life traits of parasitic-plant nematodes (low to moderate fecundity and reproductive strategy) are expected to reduce probability of appearance and transmission of drug resistance genes. It has been demonstrated that, for a large number of nematodes such as Meloidogyne spp., the mode of reproduction by mitotic parthenogenesis reduced genetic diversity of populations which may prevent a rapid drug resistance development. In conclusion, anthelmintic resistance develops in nematode parasite of animals as a consequence of an efficient selection pressure. Early detection of anthelmintic resistance is then crucial: it is not possible to avoid it, but only to delay its development in farm animal industry.
Agriculture↗
Reduced prevalence of onchocerciasis in Uganda following either deforestation or vector control with DDT.
To determine the prevalence of onchocerciasis in western Uganda following deforestation and vector control, three foci were re-examined 20 years after previous surveys. In the Ruteete focus Simulium neavei had apparently disappeared and the prevalence of onchocerciasis declined in adults from about 70% in 1971 to a standardised prevalence of 12% in 1992. An increase of population density together with extended deforestation was assumed as cause of this strong reduction. In Bugoye, a S. damnosum s.l. focus, the standardised prevalence of microfilaria carriers declined from 62% in 1972 to 4.7% in 1992. Entomological data indicated the absence of man biting blackflies in the nineties. It can be suggested that the vector control using DDT performed during the seventies had lead to a change of the species composition from anthropophilic to non-anthropophilic S. damnosum s.l. In the focus Kicheche environmental changes were insignificant, deforestation was not progressive and S. neavei was abundant. Here the standardised prevalence of microfilaria carriers was still high (61%).
Adolescent↗
Schistosomiasis: the cleanup continues.
During the past 40 years immense progress has been made in the control of schistosomiasis in China. The authors consider how the 100 million people in the country who are still at risk from the disease can be protected.
China↗
Effects of a controlled-release albendazole capsule on parasitism and production from grazing Merino ewes and lambs.
Effects of a controlled-release albendazole capsule (CRC) on nematode parasitism and production of Merino ewes and lambs were investigated in a replicated grazing experiment between August 1986 and July 1989. The experiment was conducted on a site where the naturally occurring parasites were benzimidazole-resistant, with double the recommended dose of oxfendazole reducing faecal egg counts of Trichostrongylus colubriformis by less than 50%. Two CRC treatments were compared with a minimal treatment control and the widely-used strategic control program, Wormkill. Egg counts and worm burdens of major parasite species of ewes and of lambs before and after weaning were significantly reduced by use of the CRC in ewes before lambing or in lambs at weaning. These parasitological effects were reflected in increased productivity of CRC ewes and lambs. Ewes given CRCs lost less weight and grew more wool during lactation than ewes given Wormkill or control treatments, while their lambs gained more weight and had heavier fleeces than lambs from Wormkill or control treatments. Where lambs were weaned by removing ewes from the lambing paddock, administration of the CRC at weaning to lambs whose dams had also been treated with the CRC did not result in improved production when compared with lambs from ewes dosed with CRCs and treated after weaning according to the Wormkill program. Some possible uses for the CRC in ewes and lambs were identified.
Albendazole↗
[Intestinal parasitic infections and schistosomiasis in the valley of the Senegal river in the Islamic Republic of Mauritania].
An epidemiological survey was carried out in the Trarza and Brakna regions of the Senegal River valley in Mauritania prior to implementation of a program to control intestinal parasitic infection and schistosomiasis. A total of 1297 school children between the ages of 5 and 12 years from a randomized selection of villages in the region were examined to determine the prevalence and intensity of intestinal parasitic infections and schistosomiasis. Overall prevalence was 38.1% for intestinal parasitic infection, 7.1% for intestinal schistosomiasis, and 17.1% for urinary schistosomiasis. Analysis of weight and height as indicators of nutritional status indicated that 40.9% of the children examined were under the 10th percentile of the weight-for-height indicator and that there was a statistically significant correlation between malnutrition, diarrhea, and intestinal parasitic infection (p < 0.0001). Measurement of hemoglobin levels showed that 50.4% of children were anemic (hemoglobin level < 11 g/dl) and that there was a correlation between anemia and infection by Schistosoma haematobium. This is the first epidemiological survey on intestinal parasitic infections in Mauritania and the first study on Schistosoma mansoni on the Mauritanian side of the Senegal River. Findings suggest not only that implementation of a program to control intestinal parasitic infection and schistosomiasis is needed in the region but also that it should be associated with a food/iron supplementation program and growth monitoring.
Anemia↗
The effect of salinity on transovarial transmission of a microsporidian infecting Gammarus duebeni.
This is an investigation of the impact of salinity on transovarial transmission and burden of a microsporidian sex ratio distorter in the inter-tidal crustacean Gammarus duebeni. Exposure of parasitized mothers to increased salinity during the gonotrophic cycle caused an increase in parasite burden in the follicle cells and a decrease in burden in the oocytes. It appears that salinity impedes parasite transmission from the follicle cells to the oocytes during host oogenesis. A lower proportion of the young were infected in broods from elevated salinity and, in infected offspring, parasite burden was lower than in control embryos. Parasite replication occurred during embryogenesis. However, the pattern of parasite growth did not differ between salinities, indicating that differences in parasite burden could be attributed to a reduction in the initial parasite burden transmitted to the gamete, rather than to a reduction in parasite replication during host embryogenesis. We discuss our findings with respect to parasite/host dynamics and the ecology of the host.
Animals↗
Selective primary health care: strategies for control of disease in the developing world. I. Schistosomiasis.
The control of schistosomiasis should be related to its unique biology and ecology. Whereas schistosomes multiply within the snail intermediate host, they do not replicate within the mammalian definitive host. As a consequence, a large proportion of infected humans have low or moderate worm burdens, the disease tending to occur in the small proportion of individuals harboring large numbers of worms. This situation suggests an unusual strategy: the control of schistosomal disease rather than the usual approach of control of infection and its almost invariable end point of eradication. Control of infection (transmission) requires use of mollusciciding, provision of water supplies and sanitation, health education, and chemotherapy and is still highly unlikely to result in eradication. Control of disease can be achieved at far lower cost by chemotherapy alone using the newer single-dose, oral, nontoxic chemotherapeutic agents.
Adolescent↗
[Results of control of malaria, helminthiases, and other parasitic diseases in USSR during 1954 and tasks for 1955].
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Animals↗
[INFESTATION WITH MOSQUITOES (CULEX MOLESTUS) IN NEW BUILDINGS)].
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Animals↗
Interaction of nutrition and infection: effect of copper deficiency on resistance to Trypanosoma lewisi.
The copper-deficient rat-trypanosome system was used to study copper deficiency in Sprague Dawley rats infected with Trypanosoma lewisi. Throughout the observational period, animals on the deficient diet had lower plasma and liver copper concentrations compared with complete and pair-fed animals. In all dietary groups, the food intake and body weight changes of rats inoculated with T lewisi showed significant increases over the noninoculated controls. The rate of these indices were significantly less in the copper-deficient animals compared with the animals fed complete diets. Copper-deficient and pair-fed control rats showed greater numbers of parasites than controls throughout the infection. The duration of the trypanosomal infection was longer in copper-deficient rats compared with other groups. In all of the dietary groups, severe depression in the primary and secondary antibody responses (IgM and IgG) to in vivo immunization with sheep erythrocytes was observed in infected animals over noninfected controls. The results of the present study indicate that during copper deficiency, there are significant changes in food consumption and body weight and enhanced susceptibility to infection as measured by an increased parasitemia and depression in the antibody responses.
Animals↗
Host Cell Phenotypic Variability Induced by Trypanosomatid-Parasite-Released Immunomodulatory Factors: Physiopathological Implications.
The parasitic protozoa Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania sp release a variety of molecules into their mammalian hosts (ESA: excretory-secretory products). The effects of these ESA on the host cell function may participate in the establishment of a successful infection, in which the parasite persists for a sufficient period of time to complete its life cycle. A number of regulatory components or processes originating from the parasite that control or regulate the metabolism and the growth of host cell have been identified. The purpose of the present review is to analyze some of the current data related to the parasite ESA that interfere with the host cell physiology. Special attention is given to members of conserved protein families demonstrating remarkable diversity and plasticity of function (ie, glutathione S-transferases and related molecules; members of the trans-sialidase and mucin family; and members of the ribosomal protein family). The identification of parasite target molecules and the elucidation of their mode of action toward the host cell represents a step forward in efforts aimed at an immunotherapeutic or pharmacological control of parasitic infection.
Journal Article↗